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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 118        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 120        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 121        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 123        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 126        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 130        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 133        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 134        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 136        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 137        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 138        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 139        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 140        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 141        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 142        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 143        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 144        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 145        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 148        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 149        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 150        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 151        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 152        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 153        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 154        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 155        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 156        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 157        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 158        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 159        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 162        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 166        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 168        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 170            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 171        ),
 172        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 173        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 174        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 175        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 176        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 177        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 178        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 179        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 180        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 181        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 182        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 184        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 185        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 186        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 187        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 188        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 189        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 191        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 192        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 193        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 194        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 195        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 196        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 197        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 198        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 199        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 200        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 201        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 203    }
 204
 205    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 206    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 207    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 208    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 209
 210    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 211    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 212    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 213
 214    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 215    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 216
 217    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 218    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 219
 220    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 221    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 222
 223    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 224    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 225
 226    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 227    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 228
 229    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 230    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 231
 232    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 233    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 234
 235    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 236    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 237
 238    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 239    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 240
 241    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 242    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 243
 244    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 245    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 246
 247    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 248    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 249
 250    # Whether join hints should be generated
 251    JOIN_HINTS = True
 252
 253    # Whether table hints should be generated
 254    TABLE_HINTS = True
 255
 256    # Whether query hints should be generated
 257    QUERY_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 260    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 261
 262    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 263    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 264
 265    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 266    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 267
 268    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 269    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 270
 271    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 272    RETURNING_END = True
 273
 274    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 275    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 276
 277    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 278    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 279
 280    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 281    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 282
 283    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 284    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 285
 286    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 287    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 288    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 289    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 290
 291    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 292    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 293
 294    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 295    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 296
 297    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 298    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 299
 300    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 301    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 302
 303    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 304    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 305
 306    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 307    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 308
 309    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 310    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 311
 312    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 313    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 314
 315    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 316    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 317
 318    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 319    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 320
 321    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 322    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 323
 324    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 325    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 326
 327    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 328    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 329
 330    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 331    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 332
 333    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 334    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 335
 336    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 337    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 338
 339    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 340    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 341
 342    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 343    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 344
 345    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 346    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 347
 348    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 349    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 350
 351    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 352    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 353
 354    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 355    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 356
 357    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 358    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 359
 360    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 361    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 362
 363    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 364    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 365
 366    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 367    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 368    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 369
 370    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 371    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 372
 373    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 374    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 375
 376    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 377    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 378
 379    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 380    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 381
 382    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 383    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 384
 385    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 386    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 387
 388    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 389    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 390    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 391    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 392
 393    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 394    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 395
 396    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 397    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 398
 399    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 400    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 401
 402    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 403    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 404
 405    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 406    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 407
 408    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 409    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 410
 411    # The HEX function name
 412    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 413
 414    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 415    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 416
 417    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 418    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 419
 420    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 421    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 422
 423    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 424    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 425
 426    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 427    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 428
 429    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 430    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 431
 432    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 433    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 434
 435    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 436        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 437        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 438        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 446    }
 447
 448    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 449        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 450        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 451        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 452        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 453        "DAYS": "DAY",
 454        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 455        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 456        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 457        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 458    }
 459
 460    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 461        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 462        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 463        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 464        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 465            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 466            if e.args.get("windows")
 467            else ""
 468        ),
 469        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 470    }
 471
 472    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 473
 474    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 475
 476    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 477    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 478
 479    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 480        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 482        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 486        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 488        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 495        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 507        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 508        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 511        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 515        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 521        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 523        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 524        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 525        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 530        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 534        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 541        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 542        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 546        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 548        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 550        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 552        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 554        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 556        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 558        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 561        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 563        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 564        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 565        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567    }
 568
 569    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 570    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 571
 572    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 573    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 574        exp.Command,
 575        exp.Create,
 576        exp.Delete,
 577        exp.Drop,
 578        exp.From,
 579        exp.Insert,
 580        exp.Join,
 581        exp.MultitableInserts,
 582        exp.Select,
 583        exp.SetOperation,
 584        exp.Update,
 585        exp.Where,
 586        exp.With,
 587    )
 588
 589    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 590    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 591        exp.Binary,
 592        exp.SetOperation,
 593    )
 594
 595    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 596    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 597        exp.Column,
 598        exp.Literal,
 599        exp.Neg,
 600        exp.Paren,
 601    )
 602
 603    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 604        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 605        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 606        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 608    }
 609
 610    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 611    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 612
 613    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 614
 615    __slots__ = (
 616        "pretty",
 617        "identify",
 618        "normalize",
 619        "pad",
 620        "_indent",
 621        "normalize_functions",
 622        "unsupported_level",
 623        "max_unsupported",
 624        "leading_comma",
 625        "max_text_width",
 626        "comments",
 627        "dialect",
 628        "unsupported_messages",
 629        "_escaped_quote_end",
 630        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 631        "_next_name",
 632        "_identifier_start",
 633        "_identifier_end",
 634    )
 635
 636    def __init__(
 637        self,
 638        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 639        identify: str | bool = False,
 640        normalize: bool = False,
 641        pad: int = 2,
 642        indent: int = 2,
 643        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 644        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 645        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 646        leading_comma: bool = False,
 647        max_text_width: int = 80,
 648        comments: bool = True,
 649        dialect: DialectType = None,
 650    ):
 651        import sqlglot
 652        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 653
 654        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 655        self.identify = identify
 656        self.normalize = normalize
 657        self.pad = pad
 658        self._indent = indent
 659        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 660        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 661        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 662        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 663        self.comments = comments
 664        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 665
 666        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 667        self.normalize_functions = (
 668            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 669        )
 670
 671        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 672        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 673            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 674        )
 675        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 676
 677        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 678
 679        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 680        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 681
 682    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 683        """
 684        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 685
 686        Args:
 687            expression: The syntax tree.
 688            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 689                it is safer to copy.
 690
 691        Returns:
 692            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 693        """
 694        if copy:
 695            expression = expression.copy()
 696
 697        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 698
 699        self.unsupported_messages = []
 700        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 701
 702        if self.pretty:
 703            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 704
 705        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 706            return sql
 707
 708        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 709            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 710                logger.warning(msg)
 711        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 712            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 713
 714        return sql
 715
 716    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 717        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 718        if (
 719            not expression.parent
 720            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 721            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 722        ):
 723            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 724
 725            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 726
 727        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 728            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 729
 730            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 731
 732        return expression
 733
 734    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 735        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 736            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 737        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 738
 739    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 740        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 741
 742    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 743        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 744
 745    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 746        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 747        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 748        return comment
 749
 750    def maybe_comment(
 751        self,
 752        sql: str,
 753        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 754        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 755        separated: bool = False,
 756    ) -> str:
 757        comments = (
 758            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 759            if self.comments
 760            else None
 761        )
 762
 763        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 764            return sql
 765
 766        comments_sql = " ".join(
 767            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 768        )
 769
 770        if not comments_sql:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 774
 775        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 776            return (
 777                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 778                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 779                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 780            )
 781
 782        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 783
 784    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 785        this_sql = (
 786            self.sql(expression)
 787            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 788            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 789        )
 790        if not this_sql:
 791            return "()"
 792
 793        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 794        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 795
 796    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 797        original = self.identify
 798        self.identify = False
 799        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 800        self.identify = original
 801        return result
 802
 803    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 804        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 805            return name.upper()
 806        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 807            return name.lower()
 808        return name
 809
 810    def indent(
 811        self,
 812        sql: str,
 813        level: int = 0,
 814        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 815        skip_first: bool = False,
 816        skip_last: bool = False,
 817    ) -> str:
 818        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 819            return sql
 820
 821        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 822        lines = sql.split("\n")
 823
 824        return "\n".join(
 825            (
 826                line
 827                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 828                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 829            )
 830            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 831        )
 832
 833    def sql(
 834        self,
 835        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 836        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 837        comment: bool = True,
 838    ) -> str:
 839        if not expression:
 840            return ""
 841
 842        if isinstance(expression, str):
 843            return expression
 844
 845        if key:
 846            value = expression.args.get(key)
 847            if value:
 848                return self.sql(value)
 849            return ""
 850
 851        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 852
 853        if callable(transform):
 854            sql = transform(self, expression)
 855        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 856            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 857
 858            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 859                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 860            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 861                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 862            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 863                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 864            else:
 865                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 866        else:
 867            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 868
 869        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 870
 871    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 872        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 874        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 875
 876    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 877        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 878        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 879        options = expression.args.get("options")
 880        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 881        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 882        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 883        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 884        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 885
 886    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 887        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 888            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 889        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 890        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 891
 892    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 893        return ".".join(
 894            self.sql(part)
 895            for part in (
 896                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 897                expression.args.get("db"),
 898                expression.args.get("table"),
 899                expression.args.get("this"),
 900            )
 901            if part
 902        )
 903
 904    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 905        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 906
 907        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 908            join_mark = ""
 909            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 910
 911        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 912
 913    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 915        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 916        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 917        return f"{position}{this}"
 918
 919    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 920        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 921        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 922        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 923        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 924        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 925        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 926        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 927        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 928
 929        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 930            kind = ""
 931
 932        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 933
 934    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 936        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 937        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 938
 939    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 940        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 941        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 942            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 943        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 944            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 945        else:
 946            persisted = ""
 947        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 948
 949    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 950        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 951
 952    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 953        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 954            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 955        else:
 956            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 957
 958        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 959
 960    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 961        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 962    ) -> str:
 963        this = ""
 964        if expression.this is not None:
 965            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 966            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 967
 968        start = expression.args.get("start")
 969        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 970        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 971        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 972        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 973        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 974        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 975        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 976        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 977        cycle_sql = ""
 978
 979        if cycle is not None:
 980            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 981            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 982
 983        sequence_opts = ""
 984        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 985            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 986            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 987
 988        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 989        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 990
 991        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 992
 993    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 994        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 995    ) -> str:
 996        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 997        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 998        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 999
1000    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1001        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1002    ) -> str:
1003        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1004
1005    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1006        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1007
1008    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1010
1011    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1013        if desc is not None:
1014            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1015        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1016
1017    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1019        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1020        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1021        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1022        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1023        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1024        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1025        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1026
1027    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1028        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1029
1030    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1031        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1032        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1033        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1034        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1035
1036        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1037
1038        properties_sql = ""
1039        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1040            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1041        ):
1042            properties_sql = self.sql(
1043                exp.Properties(
1044                    expressions=[
1045                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1046                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1047                    ]
1048                )
1049            )
1050
1051            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1052                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1053            elif not self.pretty:
1054                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1055                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1056
1057        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1058        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1059
1060        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1061        if expression_sql:
1062            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1063
1064            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1065                postalias_props_sql = ""
1066                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1067                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1068                        exp.Properties(
1069                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1070                        ),
1071                        wrapped=False,
1072                    )
1073                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1074                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1075
1076        postindex_props_sql = ""
1077        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1078            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1079                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1080                wrapped=False,
1081                prefix=" ",
1082            )
1083
1084        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1085        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1086        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1087
1088        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1089        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1090        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1091
1092        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1093        if clustered is None:
1094            clustered_sql = ""
1095        elif clustered:
1096            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1097        else:
1098            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1099
1100        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1101        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1102            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1103                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1104                sep=" ",
1105                prefix=" ",
1106                wrapped=False,
1107            )
1108
1109        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1110
1111        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1112        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1113            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1114                exp.Properties(
1115                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1116                ),
1117                sep=" ",
1118                prefix=" ",
1119                wrapped=False,
1120            )
1121
1122        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1123        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1124        no_schema_binding = (
1125            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1126        )
1127
1128        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1129        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1130
1131        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1132        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1133
1134    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1135        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1136        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1137        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1138        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1139        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1140        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1141        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1142        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1143        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1144        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1145
1146        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1147        if cache is None:
1148            cache_str = ""
1149        elif cache is True:
1150            cache_str = " CACHE"
1151        else:
1152            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1153
1154        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1155        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1156
1157        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1158
1159    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1161        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1162        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1163        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1164
1165    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1166        style = expression.args.get("style")
1167        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1168        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1169        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1170        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1171
1172    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1173        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1174        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1175
1176    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1177        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1178        if with_:
1179            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1180        return sql
1181
1182    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1183        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1184        recursive = (
1185            "RECURSIVE "
1186            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1187            else ""
1188        )
1189
1190        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1191
1192    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1193        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1194
1195        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1196        if materialized is False:
1197            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1198        elif materialized:
1199            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1200
1201        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1202
1203    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1204        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1205        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1206        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1207
1208        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1209            columns = ""
1210            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1211
1212        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1213            alias = self._next_name()
1214
1215        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1216
1217    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1219        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1220            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1221        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1222
1223    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1224        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1225        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1226            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1227        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1228
1229    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1231        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1232            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1233        return this
1234
1235    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1236        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1237        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1238
1239        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1240            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1241            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1242        else:
1243            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1244            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1245
1246        if escape:
1247            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1248            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1249        else:
1250            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1251            escape_sql = ""
1252
1253        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1254            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1255
1256        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1257
1258    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1259        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1260        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1261
1262    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1263        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1264        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1265        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1266        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1267
1268    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1269        nested = ""
1270        values = ""
1271        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1272
1273        type_value = expression.this
1274        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1275            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1276        else:
1277            type_sql = (
1278                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1279                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1280                else type_value
1281            )
1282
1283        if interior:
1284            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1285                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1286                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1287                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1288                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1289                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1290            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1291                nested = f" {interior}"
1292            else:
1293                nested = f"({interior})"
1294
1295        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1296        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1297            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1298            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1299        ):
1300            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1301
1302        return type_sql
1303
1304    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1305        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1306        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1307        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1308        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1309
1310    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1313        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1314        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1315        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1316        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1317        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1318        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1319        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1320        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1321        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1322        if self.RETURNING_END:
1323            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1324        else:
1325            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1326        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1327
1328    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1329        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1330        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1331        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1332        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1333        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1334        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1335        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1336        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1337        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1338        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1339        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1340        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1341        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1342        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1343        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1344
1345    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1346        op_type = type(expression)
1347        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1348
1349        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1350        if (
1351            distinct is False
1352            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1353            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1354        ):
1355            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1356
1357        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1358
1359        if distinct is None:
1360            distinct = default_distinct
1361            if distinct is None:
1362                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1363
1364        if distinct is default_distinct:
1365            kind = ""
1366        else:
1367            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1368
1369        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1370        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1371
1372    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1373        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1374            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1375            order = expression.args.get("order")
1376
1377            if limit or order:
1378                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1379
1380                if limit:
1381                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1382                if order:
1383                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1384                return self.sql(select)
1385
1386        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1387        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1388
1389        while stack:
1390            node = stack.pop()
1391
1392            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1393                stack.append(node.expression)
1394                stack.append(
1395                    self.maybe_comment(
1396                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1397                    )
1398                )
1399                stack.append(node.this)
1400            else:
1401                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1402
1403        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1404        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1405        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1406
1407    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1408        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1409        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1410        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1411        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1412        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1413            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1414        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1415        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1416
1417    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1418        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1419            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1420            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1421            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1422
1423        agg = expression.this
1424        agg_arg = agg.this
1425        cond = expression.expression.this
1426        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1427        return self.sql(agg)
1428
1429    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1430        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1431            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1432            return ""
1433
1434        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1435
1436    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1437        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1438        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1439        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1440        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1441        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1442        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1443        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1444        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1445        if include:
1446            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1447        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1448        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1449        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1450        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1451        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1452        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1453
1454        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1455
1456    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1457        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1458        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1459        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1460        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1461        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1462        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1463        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1464
1465        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1466
1467        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1468        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1469
1470    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1471        text = expression.name
1472        lower = text.lower()
1473        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1474        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1475        if (
1476            expression.quoted
1477            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1478            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1479            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1480        ):
1481            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1482        return text
1483
1484    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1485        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1486        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1487            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1488
1489        return text
1490
1491    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1492        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1493        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1494            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1495        return text
1496
1497    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1498        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1499        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1500        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1501        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1502        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1503
1504    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1505        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1506        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1507
1508    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1509        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1510
1511    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1512        root_properties = []
1513        with_properties = []
1514
1515        for p in expression.expressions:
1516            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1517            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1518                with_properties.append(p)
1519            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1520                root_properties.append(p)
1521
1522        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1523        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1524
1525        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1526            with_props = " " + with_props
1527
1528        return root_props + with_props
1529
1530    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1531        if properties.expressions:
1532            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1533        return ""
1534
1535    def properties(
1536        self,
1537        properties: exp.Properties,
1538        prefix: str = "",
1539        sep: str = ", ",
1540        suffix: str = "",
1541        wrapped: bool = True,
1542    ) -> str:
1543        if properties.expressions:
1544            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1545            if expressions:
1546                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1547                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1548        return ""
1549
1550    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1551        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1552
1553    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1554        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1555        for p in properties.expressions:
1556            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1557            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1558                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1559            else:
1560                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1561
1562        return properties_locs
1563
1564    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1565        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1566            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1567        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1568
1569    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1570        property_cls = expression.__class__
1571        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1572            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1573
1574        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1575        if not property_name:
1576            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1577
1578        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1579
1580    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1581        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1582            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1583            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1584
1585            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1586            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1587                like = f"({like})"
1588
1589            return like
1590
1591        if expression.expressions:
1592            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1593
1594        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1595        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1596
1597    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1598        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1599        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1600        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1601
1602    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1603        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1604        local = expression.args.get("local")
1605        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1606        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1607        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1608        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1609        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1610
1611    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1612        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1613        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1614        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1615
1616    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1617        if expression.args.get("default"):
1618            property = "DEFAULT"
1619        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1620            property = "ON"
1621        else:
1622            property = "OFF"
1623        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1624
1625    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1626        if expression.args.get("no"):
1627            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1628        if expression.args.get("default"):
1629            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1630
1631        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1632        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1633
1634    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1635        default = expression.args.get("default")
1636        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1637        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1638        if default or minimum or maximum:
1639            if default:
1640                prop = "DEFAULT"
1641            elif minimum:
1642                prop = "MINIMUM"
1643            else:
1644                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1645            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1646        units = expression.args.get("units")
1647        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1648        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1649
1650    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1651        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1652        always = expression.args.get("always")
1653        default = expression.args.get("default")
1654        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1655        never = expression.args.get("never")
1656
1657        if autotemp is not None:
1658            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1659        elif always:
1660            prop = "ALWAYS"
1661        elif default:
1662            prop = "DEFAULT"
1663        elif manual:
1664            prop = "MANUAL"
1665        elif never:
1666            prop = "NEVER"
1667        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1668
1669    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1670        no = expression.args.get("no")
1671        no = " NO" if no else ""
1672        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1673        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1674        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1675        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1676        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1677
1678    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1679        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1680            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1681        if expression.this:
1682            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1683            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1684            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1685
1686        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1687        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1688        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1689
1690    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692
1693        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1694        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1695            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1696        else:
1697            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1698
1699        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1700
1701    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1702        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1703        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1704        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1705        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1706        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1707        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1708        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1709
1710    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1711        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1712        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1713        statistics_sql = ""
1714        if statistics is not None:
1715            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1716        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1717
1718    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1721        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1722        data_consistency = (
1723            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1724        )
1725        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1726        retention_period = (
1727            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1728        )
1729
1730        if this:
1731            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1732        else:
1733            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1734
1735        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1736
1737        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1738
1739    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1740        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1741        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1742
1743        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1744            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1745        else:
1746            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1747
1748        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1749        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1750        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1751        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1752        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1753        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1754        if is_function:
1755            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1756        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1757
1758        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1759        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1760        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1761        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1762        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1763        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1764        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1765        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1766
1767        if self.RETURNING_END:
1768            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1769        else:
1770            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1771
1772        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1773        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1774        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1775        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1776
1777        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1778        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1779
1780        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1781        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1782
1783    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1784        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1785
1786    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1787        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1788        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1791        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1792
1793    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1794        return expression.name
1795
1796    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1797        return expression.name
1798
1799    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1800        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1801
1802        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1803        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1804
1805        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1806        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1807        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1808
1809        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1810        if expressions:
1811            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1812            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1813
1814        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1815
1816    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1817        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1818
1819    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1820        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1821        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1822        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1823        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1824        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1825        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1826        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1827        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1828        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1829        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1830        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1831        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1832        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1833
1834    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1835        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1836
1837    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1838        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1839        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1840        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1841        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1842
1843    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1845        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1846        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1847        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1848
1849    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1850        return ".".join(
1851            self.sql(part)
1852            for part in (
1853                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1854                expression.args.get("db"),
1855                expression.args.get("this"),
1856            )
1857            if part is not None
1858        )
1859
1860    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1861        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1862        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1863        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1864        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1865        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1866        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1867        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1868        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1869
1870        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1871        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1872            sample_pre_alias = sample
1873            sample_post_alias = ""
1874        else:
1875            sample_pre_alias = ""
1876            sample_post_alias = sample
1877
1878        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1879        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1880        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1881        joins = self.indent(
1882            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1883        )
1884        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1885
1886        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1887        if file_format:
1888            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1889            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1890            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1891
1892        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1893        if ordinality:
1894            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1895            alias = ""
1896
1897        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1898        if when:
1899            table = f"{table} {when}"
1900
1901        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1902        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1903
1904        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1905        if rows_from:
1906            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1907
1908        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1909
1910    def tablesample_sql(
1911        self,
1912        expression: exp.TableSample,
1913        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1914    ) -> str:
1915        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1916        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1917        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1918        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1919        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1920        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1921        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1922        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1923        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1924
1925        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1926        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1927            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1928
1929        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1930        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1931            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1932
1933        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1934        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1935            expr = f"({expr})"
1936
1937        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1938
1939    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1940        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1941
1942        if expression.this:
1943            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1944            if not expressions:
1945                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1946
1947            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1948            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1949            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1950            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1951            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1952
1953        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1954        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1955        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1956
1957        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1958
1959        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1960        if include_nulls is not None:
1961            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1962        else:
1963            nulls = ""
1964
1965        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1966        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1967        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1968
1969    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1970        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1971        kind = expression.text("kind")
1972        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1973        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1974
1975    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1976        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1977
1978    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1979        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1980        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1981        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1982        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1983        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1984        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1985        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1986        if self.RETURNING_END:
1987            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1988        else:
1989            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1990        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1991        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1992
1993    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1994        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1995
1996        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1997        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1998            args = self.expressions(expression)
1999            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2000            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2001            values = (
2002                f"({values})"
2003                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2004                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2005                else values
2006            )
2007            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2008
2009        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2010        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2011        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2012
2013        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2014
2015        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2016            row = tup.expressions
2017
2018            if i == 0 and column_names:
2019                row = [
2020                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2021                ]
2022
2023            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2024
2025        if self.pretty:
2026            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2027            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2028            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2029            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2030            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2031
2032        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2033        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2034        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2035
2036    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2037        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2038
2039    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2040    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2041        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2042        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2043        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2044
2045    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2046        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2047
2048    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2049        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2050        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2051
2052    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2053        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2054        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2055
2056    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2057        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2058        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2059
2060    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2061        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2062        if group_by_all is True:
2063            modifier = " ALL"
2064        elif group_by_all is False:
2065            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2066        else:
2067            modifier = ""
2068
2069        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2070
2071        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2072        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2073        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2074
2075        groupings = csv(
2076            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2077            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2078            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2079            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2080            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2081        )
2082
2083        if (
2084            expression.expressions
2085            and groupings
2086            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2087        ):
2088            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2089
2090        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2091
2092    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2093        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2094        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2095
2096    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2097        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2098        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2099        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2100        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2101        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2102        return start + connect
2103
2104    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2105        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106
2107    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2108        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2109            side = None
2110        else:
2111            side = expression.side
2112
2113        op_sql = " ".join(
2114            op
2115            for op in (
2116                expression.method,
2117                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2118                side,
2119                expression.kind,
2120                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2121            )
2122            if op
2123        )
2124        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2125        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2126        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2127        using = expression.args.get("using")
2128
2129        if not on_sql and using:
2130            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2131
2132        this = expression.this
2133        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2134
2135        if on_sql:
2136            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2137            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2138            if using:
2139                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2140            else:
2141                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2142        elif not op_sql:
2143            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2144                return f" {this_sql}"
2145
2146            return f", {this_sql}"
2147
2148        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2149            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2150
2151        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2152
2153    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2154        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2155        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2156        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2157
2158    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2159        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2160
2161        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2162        if cross_apply is True:
2163            op = "INNER JOIN "
2164        elif cross_apply is False:
2165            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2166        else:
2167            op = ""
2168
2169        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2170
2171    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2173
2174        if expression.args.get("view"):
2175            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2176            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2177            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2178            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2179            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2180            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2181
2182        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2183        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2184        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2185
2186    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188
2189        args = [
2190            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2191            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2192            if e
2193        ]
2194
2195        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2196        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2197        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2198        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2199
2200        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2201
2202    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2204        value = expression.expression
2205        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2206        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2207        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2208        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2209
2210    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2211        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2212        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2215        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2216        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2217        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2218        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2219
2220    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2221        expressions = (
2222            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2223        )
2224        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2225        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2226
2227    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2228        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2229
2230    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2231        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2232            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2233            return ""
2234
2235        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2236        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2237        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2238        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2239
2240        if wait is not None:
2241            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2242                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2243            else:
2244                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2245
2246        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2247
2248    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2249        text = expression.this or ""
2250        if expression.is_string:
2251            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2252        return text
2253
2254    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2255        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2256            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2257            text = "".join(
2258                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2259            )
2260
2261        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2262            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2263        )
2264
2265    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2266        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2267        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2268        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2269        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2270        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2271        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2272        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2273        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2274        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2275        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2276        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2277
2278    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2279        return "NULL"
2280
2281    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2282        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2283
2284    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2287        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2288        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2289
2290    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2291        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2292        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2293        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2294        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2295        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2296        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2297        interpolated_values = [
2298            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2299            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2300        ]
2301        interpolate = (
2302            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2303        )
2304        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2305
2306    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2307        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2308
2309    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2310        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2311
2312    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2313        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2314
2315    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2316        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2317        asc = not desc
2318
2319        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2320        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2321        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2322        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2323        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2324
2325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2326
2327        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2328        nulls_sort_change = ""
2329        if nulls_first and (
2330            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2331        ):
2332            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2333        elif (
2334            nulls_last
2335            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2336            and not nulls_are_last
2337        ):
2338            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2339
2340        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2341        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2342            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2343            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2344                self.unsupported(
2345                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2346                )
2347                nulls_sort_change = ""
2348            elif (
2349                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2350                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2351                and (
2352                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2353                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2354                )
2355            ):
2356                self.unsupported(
2357                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2358                )
2359                nulls_sort_change = ""
2360            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2361                if expression.this.is_int:
2362                    self.unsupported(
2363                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2364                    )
2365                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2366                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2367                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2368                nulls_sort_change = ""
2369
2370        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2371        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2372
2373        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2374
2375    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2376        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2377        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2378
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380
2381        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2382
2383    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2384        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2385        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2386        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2387        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2388        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2389        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2390        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2391        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2392        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2393        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2394        definition_sqls = [
2395            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2396            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2397        ]
2398        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2399        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2400        body = "".join(
2401            (
2402                partition,
2403                order,
2404                measures,
2405                rows,
2406                after,
2407                pattern,
2408                define,
2409            )
2410        )
2411        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2412        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2413        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2414
2415    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2416        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2417
2418        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2419            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2420        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2421            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2422
2423        return csv(
2424            *sqls,
2425            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2426            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2427            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2428            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2429            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2430            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2431            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2432            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2433            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2434            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2435            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2436            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2437            self.options_modifier(expression),
2438            sep="",
2439        )
2440
2441    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2442        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2443        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2444
2445    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2446        return ""
2447
2448    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2449        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2450    ) -> t.List[str]:
2451        return [
2452            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2453            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2454        ]
2455
2456    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2457        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2458        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2459        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2460
2461    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2462        into = expression.args.get("into")
2463        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2464            into.pop()
2465
2466        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2467        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2468        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2469        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2470
2471        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2472        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2473            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2474            limit.pop()
2475        else:
2476            top = ""
2477
2478        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2479
2480        if kind:
2481            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2482                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2483            else:
2484                if kind == "STRUCT":
2485                    expressions = self.expressions(
2486                        sqls=[
2487                            self.sql(
2488                                exp.Struct(
2489                                    expressions=[
2490                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2491                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2492                                        else e
2493                                        for e in expression.expressions
2494                                    ]
2495                                )
2496                            )
2497                        ]
2498                    )
2499                kind = ""
2500
2501        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2502        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2503        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2504        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2505        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2506            expression,
2507            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2508            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2509            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2510        )
2511
2512        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2513
2514        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2515            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2516                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2517            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2518                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2519            else:
2520                table_kind = ""
2521            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2522
2523        return sql
2524
2525    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2526        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2527        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2528        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2529
2530    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2531        if expression.expressions:
2532            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2533        return ""
2534
2535    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2536        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2537        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2538        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2539        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2540        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2541        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2542        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2543
2544    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2545        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2546        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2547
2548    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2550        kind = expression.text("kind")
2551        if kind:
2552            kind = f"{kind}."
2553        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2554
2555    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2556        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2557
2558    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2559        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2560        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2561        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2562        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2563            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2564
2565            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2566            expression.set("sample", None)
2567
2568        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2569        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2570        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2571
2572    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2573        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2574        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2575
2576    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2577        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2578
2579        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2580        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2581
2582        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2583            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2584                alias.append("columns", offset)
2585
2586        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2587            columns = alias.columns
2588            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2589        else:
2590            alias = self.sql(alias)
2591
2592        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2593        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2594            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2595        else:
2596            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2597                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2598            elif offset:
2599                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2600            else:
2601                suffix = alias
2602
2603        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2604
2605    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2606        return ""
2607
2608    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2609        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2610        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2611
2612    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2613        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2614        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2615        order = expression.args.get("order")
2616        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2617        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2618        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2619        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2620
2621        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2622
2623        first = expression.args.get("first")
2624        if first is None:
2625            first = ""
2626        else:
2627            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2628
2629        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2630            return f"{this} {alias}"
2631
2632        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2633        return f"{this} ({args})"
2634
2635    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2636        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2637        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2638
2639    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2640        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2641        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2642        end = (
2643            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2644            or "CURRENT ROW"
2645        )
2646        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2647
2648    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2649        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2650        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2651        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2652
2653    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2655        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2656        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2657        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2658
2659    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2660        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2661    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2662        return apply_index_offset(
2663            expression.this,
2664            expression.expressions,
2665            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2666        )
2667
2668    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2669        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2670        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2671        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2672
2673    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2674        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2675
2676    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2678        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2679            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2680                this = self.wrap(this)
2681            return f"ANY{this}"
2682        return f"ANY {this}"
2683
2684    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2685        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2686
2687    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2688        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2689        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2690
2691        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2692            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2693            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2694
2695        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2696
2697        if default:
2698            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2699
2700        statements.append("END")
2701
2702        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2703            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2704
2705        return " ".join(statements)
2706
2707    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2710        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2711
2712    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2713        order = expression.args.get("order")
2714        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2715        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2716
2717    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2718        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2719        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2720        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2721
2722    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2723        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2724
2725        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2726            func_name = "LTRIM"
2727        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2728            func_name = "RTRIM"
2729        else:
2730            func_name = "TRIM"
2731
2732        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2733
2734    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2735        args = expression.expressions
2736        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2737            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2738
2739        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2740            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2741
2742        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2743            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2744
2745        return args
2746
2747    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2748        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2749
2750        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2751        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2752            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2753
2754        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2755
2756    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2757        return self.func(
2758            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2759        )
2760
2761    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2762        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2763        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2764
2765    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2766        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2767        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2768        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2769        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2770        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2771        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2772        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2773        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2774
2775    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2776        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2777        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2778        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2779        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2780
2781    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2782        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2783
2784    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2785        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2786        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2787        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2788
2789    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2790        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2791
2792    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2793        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2794
2795        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2796            path = self.escape_str(path)
2797
2798        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2799            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2800
2801        return path
2802
2803    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2804        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2805            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2806            if not callable(transform):
2807                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2808                return ""
2809
2810            return transform(self, expression)
2811
2812        if isinstance(expression, int):
2813            return str(expression)
2814
2815        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2816            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2817            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2818        else:
2819            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2820            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2821
2822        return escaped
2823
2824    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2825        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2826
2827    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2828        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2829        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2830
2831        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2832        if unique_keys is not None:
2833            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2834        else:
2835            unique_keys = ""
2836
2837        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2838        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2839        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2840        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2841
2842        return self.func(
2843            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2844            *expression.expressions,
2845            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2846        )
2847
2848    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2849        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2850
2851    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2852        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2853        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2854        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2855        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2856        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2857        return self.func(
2858            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2859        )
2860
2861    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2863        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2864        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2865        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2866        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2867        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2868        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2869        return self.func(
2870            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2871            this,
2872            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2873        )
2874
2875    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2876        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2877        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2878        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2879
2880        if nested_schema:
2881            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2882
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2885        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2886        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2887
2888    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2889        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2890
2891    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2893        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2894        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2895        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2896        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2897        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2898        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2899        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2900        return self.func(
2901            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2902        )
2903
2904    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2907        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2908        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2909        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2910        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2911
2912    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2913        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2914        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2915        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2916        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2917        with_ = (
2918            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2919            if expressions
2920            else ""
2921        )
2922        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2923
2924    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2925        query = expression.args.get("query")
2926        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2927        field = expression.args.get("field")
2928        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2929
2930        if query:
2931            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2932        elif unnest:
2933            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2934        elif field:
2935            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2936        else:
2937            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2938
2939        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2940
2941    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2942        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2943
2944    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2945        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2946        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2947            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2948        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2949
2950        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2951            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2952            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2953
2954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2955        if this:
2956            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2957            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2958
2959        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2960
2961    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2962        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2963
2964    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2965        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2966        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2967        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2968        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2969        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2970        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2971
2972    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2973        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2974        parent = expression.parent
2975        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2976        return self.func(
2977            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2978        )
2979
2980    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2981        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2982        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2983
2984    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2985        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2986        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2987        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2988        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2989
2990    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2991        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2992
2993    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2994        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2995        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2996        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2997
2998    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2999        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3000
3001        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3002        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3003
3004        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3005            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3006        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3007            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3008
3009        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3010
3011    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3012        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3013
3014    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3015        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3016        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3017        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3018
3019    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3020        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3021        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3022        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3023
3024    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3027        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3028
3029    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3030        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3031
3032    def and_sql(
3033        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3034    ) -> str:
3035        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3036
3037    def or_sql(
3038        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3039    ) -> str:
3040        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3041
3042    def xor_sql(
3043        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3044    ) -> str:
3045        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3046
3047    def connector_sql(
3048        self,
3049        expression: exp.Connector,
3050        op: str,
3051        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3052    ) -> str:
3053        if stack is not None:
3054            if expression.expressions:
3055                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3056            else:
3057                stack.append(expression.right)
3058                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3059                    for comment in expression.comments:
3060                        if comment:
3061                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3062                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3063            return op
3064
3065        stack = [expression]
3066        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3067        ops = set()
3068
3069        while stack:
3070            node = stack.pop()
3071            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3072                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3073            else:
3074                sql = self.sql(node)
3075                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3076                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3077                else:
3078                    sqls.append(sql)
3079
3080        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3081        return sep.join(sqls)
3082
3083    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3084        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3085
3086    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3087        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3088
3089    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3090        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3091
3092    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3093        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3094
3095    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3096        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3097
3098    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3099        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3100
3101    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3102        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3103        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3104        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3105        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3106        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3107        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3108        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3109
3110    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3111        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3112        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3113
3114    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3115        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3116            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3117        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3118
3119    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3120        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3121
3122    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3123        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3124        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3125        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3126        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3127        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3128        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3129
3130    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3131        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3132        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3133        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3134        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3135        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3136        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3137        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3138        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3139        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3140
3141    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3142        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3143        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3144        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3145        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3146
3147        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3148            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3149
3150        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3151
3152    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3153        return "BEGIN"
3154
3155    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3156        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3157        if chain is not None:
3158            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3159
3160        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3161
3162    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3163        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3164        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3165        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3166
3167    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3168        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3169
3170        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3171        if dtype:
3172            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3173            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3174            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3175            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3176            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3177
3178        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3179        if default:
3180            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3181
3182        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3183        if comment:
3184            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3185
3186        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3187        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3188
3189        if not drop and not allow_null:
3190            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3191
3192        if allow_null is not None:
3193            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3194            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3195
3196        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3197
3198    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3200        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3201            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3202        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3203
3204    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3205        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3206        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3208        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3209        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3210
3211    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3212        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3213            # Remove db from tables
3214            expression = expression.transform(
3215                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3216            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3217        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3218        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3219
3220    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3221        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3222        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3223        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3224        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3225
3226    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3227        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3228        return f"SET {exprs}"
3229
3230    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3231        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3232
3233        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3234            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3235        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3236            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3237        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3238            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3239        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3240            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3241        else:
3242            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3243
3244        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3245        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3246        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3247        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3248        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3249        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3250        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3251        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3252
3253        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3254
3255    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3256        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3257            return self.expressions(
3258                expression,
3259                key="actions",
3260                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3261                skip_first=True,
3262            )
3263        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3264
3265    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3266        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3267        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3268        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3269
3270    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3271        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3272
3273    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3274        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3275
3276        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3277            case = exp.case()
3278            for arg in expression.expressions:
3279                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3280            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3281
3282        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3283
3284        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3285        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3286        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3287
3288    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3289        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3290
3291    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3292        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3293
3294    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3295        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3296        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3297        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3298        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3299
3300    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3301        return self.sql(
3302            exp.Cast(
3303                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3304                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3305            )
3306        )
3307
3308    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3309        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3310            return self.func(
3311                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3312            )
3313        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3314
3315    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3316        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3317
3318        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3319            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3320
3321        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3322            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3323                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3324
3325        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3326            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3327                return self.sql(
3328                    exp.cast(
3329                        l / r,
3330                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3331                    )
3332                )
3333
3334        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3335
3336    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3337        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3338
3339    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3340        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3341
3342    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3343        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3344
3345    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3346        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3347
3348    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3349        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3350
3351    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3352        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3353
3354    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3355        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3356
3357    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3358        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3359
3360    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3361        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3362
3363    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3364        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3365
3366    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3367        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3368
3369    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3370        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3371            return self.sql(
3372                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3373            )
3374        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3375
3376    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3377        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3378
3379    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3380        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3381
3382    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3383        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3384
3385    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3386        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3387
3388    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3389        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3390
3391    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3392        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3393
3394    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3395        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3396
3397    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3398        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3399
3400    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3401        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3402
3403    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3404        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3405
3406    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3407        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3408
3409    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3410        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3411
3412    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3413        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3414
3415    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3416        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3417            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3418            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3419
3420        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3421
3422    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3423        this = expression.this
3424        expr = expression.expression
3425
3426        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3427            this, expr = expr, this
3428        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3429            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3430                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3431
3432            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3433
3434        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3435
3436    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3437        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3438        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3440        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3441        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3442
3443    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3444        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3445        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3446        binary_type = type(expression)
3447
3448        while stack:
3449            node = stack.pop()
3450
3451            if type(node) is binary_type:
3452                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3453                if op_func:
3454                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3455
3456                stack.append(node.right)
3457                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3458                stack.append(node.left)
3459            else:
3460                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3461
3462        return "".join(sqls)
3463
3464    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3465        args = []
3466
3467        for key in expression.arg_types:
3468            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3469
3470            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3471                for value in arg_value:
3472                    args.append(value)
3473            elif arg_value is not None:
3474                args.append(arg_value)
3475
3476        if self.normalize_functions:
3477            name = expression.sql_name()
3478        else:
3479            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3480
3481        return self.func(name, *args)
3482
3483    def func(
3484        self,
3485        name: str,
3486        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3487        prefix: str = "(",
3488        suffix: str = ")",
3489        normalize: bool = True,
3490    ) -> str:
3491        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3492        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3493
3494    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3495        arg_sqls = tuple(
3496            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3497        )
3498        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3499            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3500        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3501
3502    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3503        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3504
3505    def format_time(
3506        self,
3507        expression: exp.Expression,
3508        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3509        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3510    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3511        return format_time(
3512            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3513            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3514            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3515        )
3516
3517    def expressions(
3518        self,
3519        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3520        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3521        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3522        flat: bool = False,
3523        indent: bool = True,
3524        skip_first: bool = False,
3525        skip_last: bool = False,
3526        sep: str = ", ",
3527        prefix: str = "",
3528        dynamic: bool = False,
3529        new_line: bool = False,
3530    ) -> str:
3531        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3532
3533        if not expressions:
3534            return ""
3535
3536        if flat:
3537            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3538
3539        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3540        result_sqls = []
3541
3542        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3543            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3544            if not sql:
3545                continue
3546
3547            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3548
3549            if self.pretty:
3550                if self.leading_comma:
3551                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3552                else:
3553                    result_sqls.append(
3554                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3555                    )
3556            else:
3557                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3558
3559        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3560            if new_line:
3561                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3562                result_sqls.append("")
3563            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3564        else:
3565            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3566
3567        return (
3568            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3569            if indent
3570            else result_sql
3571        )
3572
3573    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3574        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3575        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3576        if flat:
3577            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3578        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3579
3580    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3581        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3582        if not property_name:
3583            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3584        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3585
3586    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3587        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3588
3589    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3590        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3591
3592    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3594        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3595        expressions = (
3596            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3597        )
3598        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3599
3600    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3603        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3604
3605    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3606        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3607
3608    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3609        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3610        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3611        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3612        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3613
3614        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3615        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3616            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3617            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3618            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3619            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3620        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3621            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3622                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3623            else:
3624                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3625        else:
3626            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3627        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3628
3629    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3630        table = expression.this
3631        table_alias = ""
3632
3633        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3634        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3635            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3636            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3637
3638        this = self.sql(table)
3639        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3640        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3641        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3642        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3643        if returning:
3644            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3645
3646        sep = self.sep()
3647
3648        return self.prepend_ctes(
3649            expression,
3650            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3651        )
3652
3653    @unsupported_args("format")
3654    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3655        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3656
3657    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3658        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3659            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3660            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3661
3662        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3663        if not fmt:
3664            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3665            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3666
3667        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3668
3669    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3670        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3671        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3672        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3673        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3674        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3675
3676    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3677        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3678        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3679        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3680        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3681
3682    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3683        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3684
3685    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3686        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3687
3688    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3689    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3690        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3691        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3692        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3693        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3694        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3695        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3696        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3697
3698    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3699        return ""
3700
3701    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3702        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3703        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3704        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3705        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3706        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3707
3708    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3710        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3711
3712        if having:
3713            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3714
3715        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3716
3717    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3718        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3719        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3720        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3721        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3722        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3723        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3724        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3725        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3726        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3727        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3728        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3729        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3730        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3731
3732    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3733        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3734        if key_block_size:
3735            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3736
3737        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3738        if using:
3739            return f"USING {using}"
3740
3741        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3742        if parser:
3743            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3744
3745        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3746        if comment:
3747            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3748
3749        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3750        if visible is not None:
3751            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3752
3753        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3754        if engine_attr:
3755            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3756
3757        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3758        if secondary_engine_attr:
3759            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3760
3761        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3762        return ""
3763
3764    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3765        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3766        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3767
3768    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3769        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3770        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3771        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3772        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3773        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3774        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3775        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3776        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3777        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3778        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3779        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3780
3781    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3782        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3783            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3784
3785        case = exp.Case().when(
3786            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3787            expression.args["true"],
3788            copy=False,
3789        )
3790        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3791        if else_cond:
3792            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3793
3794        return self.sql(case)
3795
3796    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3797        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3798        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3799        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3800        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3801        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3802        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3803
3804    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3805        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3806
3807    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3808        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3809
3810    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3811        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3812        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3813        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3814        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3815        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3816        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3817
3818    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3819        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3820        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3821        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3822
3823    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3824        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3825        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3826        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3827
3828    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3829        arg = expression.this
3830        if not arg.type:
3831            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3832
3833            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3834
3835        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3836            return self.sql(arg)
3837
3838        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3839        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3840
3841    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3842        this = expression.this
3843        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3844            return self.sql(this)
3845
3846        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3847
3848    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3849        this = expression.this
3850        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3851            return self.sql(this)
3852
3853        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3854
3855    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3856        this = expression.this
3857        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3858
3859        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3860            return self.sql(
3861                exp.cast(
3862                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3863                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3864                )
3865            )
3866
3867        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3868            return self.sql(this)
3869
3870        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3871
3872    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3873        return self.sql(
3874            exp.func(
3875                "DATEDIFF",
3876                expression.this,
3877                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3878                "day",
3879            )
3880        )
3881
3882    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3883        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3884            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3885
3886        unit = expression.text("unit")
3887        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3888            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3889
3890        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3891
3892    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3893        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3894
3895        return self.func(
3896            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3897        )
3898
3899    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3900        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3901            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3902            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3903            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3904            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3905
3906        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3907
3908        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3909        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3910            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3911
3912        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3913
3914    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3915        expression.set(
3916            "expressions",
3917            [
3918                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3919                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3920                else e
3921                for e in expression.expressions
3922            ],
3923        )
3924
3925        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3926
3927    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3928        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3929        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3930
3931        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3932
3933    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3934        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3935        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3936
3937        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3938
3939        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3940        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3941
3942        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3943        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3944
3945        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3946        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3947
3948        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3949        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3950
3951        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3952
3953    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3954    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3955    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3956        to = expression.this
3957        value = expression.expression
3958        style = expression.args.get("style")
3959        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3960        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3961
3962        if not to or not value:
3963            return ""
3964
3965        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3966        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3967            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3968
3969        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3970        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3971
3972        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3973        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3974            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3975
3976            style_value = style.name
3977            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3978            if not converted_style:
3979                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3980
3981            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3982
3983            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3984                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3985            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3986                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3987            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3988                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3989            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3990                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3991
3992        if not transformed:
3993            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3994
3995        return self.sql(transformed)
3996
3997    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3998        this = expression.this
3999        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4000            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4001            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4002
4003        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4004            return f".{this}"
4005
4006        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4007        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4008
4009    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4010        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4011        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4012
4013    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4014        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4015            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4016
4017            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4018
4019        return expression
4020
4021    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4022        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4023            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4024            mods = sorted(
4025                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4026                key=lambda x: 0
4027                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4028                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4029            )
4030
4031            if mods:
4032                mod = mods[0]
4033                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4034                this.meta["inline"] = True
4035                mod.this.replace(this)
4036                return self.sql(expression.this)
4037
4038            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4039
4040            if agg_func:
4041                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4042
4043        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4044
4045    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4046        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4047        if self.pretty:
4048            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4049        return string
4050
4051    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4052        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4053
4054        if expression.expressions:
4055            upper = option.upper()
4056
4057            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4058            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4059
4060            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4061            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4062            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4063            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4064
4065        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4066
4067        if not value:
4068            return option
4069
4070        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4071
4072        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4073
4074    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4075        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4076        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4077            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4078            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4079            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4080        else:
4081            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4082            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4083            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4084
4085        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4086        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4087
4088        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4089        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4090
4091        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4092        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4093
4094        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4095        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4096
4097        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4098
4099    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4100        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4101        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4102
4103        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4104        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4105        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4106        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4107
4108        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4109        params = self.expressions(
4110            expression,
4111            key="params",
4112            sep=sep,
4113            new_line=True,
4114            skip_last=True,
4115            skip_first=True,
4116            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4117        )
4118
4119        if params:
4120            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4121                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4122            elif not self.pretty:
4123                params = f" {params}"
4124
4125        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4126
4127    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4128        return ""
4129
4130    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4131        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4132        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4133        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4134        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4135        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4136
4137        if filter_col or retention_period:
4138            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4139
4140        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4141
4142    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4143        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4144    ) -> str:
4145        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4146        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4147        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4148        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4149
4150    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4151        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4152        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4153        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4154
4155    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4156        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4157
4158    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4160        expr = expression.expression
4161
4162        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4163            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4164            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4165        else:
4166            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4167
4168        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4169
4170    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4171        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4172            return self.sql(expression.this)
4173
4174        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4175
4176    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4177        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4178        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4179
4180        if lower and upper:
4181            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4182        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4183
4184    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4185        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4186        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4187        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4188        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4189        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4190        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4191
4192        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4193
4194    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4195        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4196
4197        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4198        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4199            fill_pattern = "' '"
4200
4201        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4202
4203    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4204        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4205        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4206
4207    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4208        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4209
4210        parent = expression.parent
4211        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4212            parent = parent.parent
4213
4214        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4215            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4216
4217        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4218            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4219
4220        return self.sql(generate_series)
4221
4222    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4223        exprs = expression.expressions
4224        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4225            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4226        else:
4227            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4228
4229        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4230
4231    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4232        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4233            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4234
4235        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4236        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4237        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4238
4239        if source_tz and timestamp:
4240            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4241                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4242            )
4243
4244        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4245
4246        return self.sql(expr)
4247
4248    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4250        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4251
4252        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4253
4254        if _with is None:
4255            with_sql = ""
4256        elif not _with:
4257            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4258        else:
4259            with_sql = " WITH"
4260
4261        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4262
4263        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4264
4265    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4266        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4267            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4268
4269        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4270        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4271        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4272
4273        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4274        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4275
4276        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4277
4278    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4279        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4280        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4281        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4282        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4283        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4284
4285    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4286        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4287        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4288        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4289        return res
4290
4291    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4292        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4293        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4294        empty = (
4295            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4296            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4297            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4298        )
4299
4300        error = expression.args.get("error")
4301        error = (
4302            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4303            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4304            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4305        )
4306
4307        if error and empty:
4308            error = (
4309                f"{empty} {error}"
4310                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4311                else f"{error} {empty}"
4312            )
4313            empty = ""
4314
4315        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4316
4317        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4318
4319    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4320        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4321        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4322
4323        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4324        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4325
4326        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4327        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4328
4329        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4330
4331        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4332
4333    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4334        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4335
4336        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4337            parent = expression.parent
4338            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4339                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4340                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4341            else:
4342                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4343                this = expression.this
4344                this_sql = (
4345                    self.expressions(this)
4346                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4347                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4348                )
4349                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4350
4351        return array_agg
4352
4353    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4354        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4355        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4356
4357        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4358
4359    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4360        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4361
4362        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4363        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4364
4365        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4366        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4367
4368        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4369
4370        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4371
4372        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4373
4374    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4375        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4376        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4377        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4378
4379        return f"{this}{columns}"
4380
4381    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4383
4384        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4385        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4386
4387        return f"{kind}{this}"
4388
4389    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4390        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4391        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4392            func = f"*{func}"
4393
4394        return func
4395
4396    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4397        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4398        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4399        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4400        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4401        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4402
4403        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 121        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 122        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 124        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 127        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 131        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 134        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 135        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 137        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 138        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 139        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 140        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 141        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 142        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 143        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 144        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 145        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 146        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 147        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 149        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 150        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 151        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 152        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 153        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 154        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 155        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 156        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 157        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 158        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 159        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 160        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 161        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 163        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 167        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 169        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 171            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 172        ),
 173        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 174        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 175        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 177        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 178        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 179        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 180        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 181        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 182        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 183        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 184        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 185        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 186        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 187        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 188        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 189        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 192        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 193        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 194        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 195        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 196        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 197        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 198        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 199        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 200        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 201        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 202        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 204    }
 205
 206    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 207    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 208    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 209    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 210
 211    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 212    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 213    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 214
 215    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 216    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 217
 218    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 219    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 220
 221    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 222    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 223
 224    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 225    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 226
 227    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 228    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 229
 230    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 231    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 232
 233    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 234    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 235
 236    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 237    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 238
 239    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 240    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 241
 242    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 243    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 244
 245    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 246    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 247
 248    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 249    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 250
 251    # Whether join hints should be generated
 252    JOIN_HINTS = True
 253
 254    # Whether table hints should be generated
 255    TABLE_HINTS = True
 256
 257    # Whether query hints should be generated
 258    QUERY_HINTS = True
 259
 260    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 261    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 262
 263    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 264    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 265
 266    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 267    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 268
 269    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 270    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 271
 272    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 273    RETURNING_END = True
 274
 275    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 276    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 277
 278    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 279    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 280
 281    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 282    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 283
 284    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 285    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 286
 287    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 288    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 289    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 290    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 291
 292    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 293    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 294
 295    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 296    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 297
 298    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 299    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 300
 301    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 302    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 303
 304    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 305    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 306
 307    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 308    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 309
 310    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 311    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 312
 313    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 314    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 315
 316    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 317    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 318
 319    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 320    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 321
 322    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 323    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 324
 325    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 326    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 327
 328    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 329    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 330
 331    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 332    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 333
 334    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 335    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 336
 337    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 338    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 339
 340    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 341    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 342
 343    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 344    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 345
 346    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 347    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 350    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 351
 352    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 353    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 354
 355    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 356    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 357
 358    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 359    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 360
 361    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 363
 364    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 365    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 366
 367    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 368    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 369    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 370
 371    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 372    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 373
 374    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 375    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 376
 377    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 378    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 379
 380    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 381    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 382
 383    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 384    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 385
 386    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 387    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 388
 389    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 390    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 391    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 392    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 393
 394    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 395    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 396
 397    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 398    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 399
 400    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 401    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 402
 403    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 404    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 405
 406    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 407    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 408
 409    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 410    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 411
 412    # The HEX function name
 413    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 414
 415    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 416    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 417
 418    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 419    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 420
 421    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 422    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 423
 424    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 425    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 426
 427    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 428    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 429
 430    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 431    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 432
 433    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 434    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 435
 436    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 437        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 438        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 439        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 440        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 441        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 442        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 443        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 444        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 445        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 446        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 447    }
 448
 449    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 450        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 451        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 452        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 453        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 454        "DAYS": "DAY",
 455        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 456        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 457        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 458        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 459    }
 460
 461    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 462        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 463        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 464        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 465        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 466            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 467            if e.args.get("windows")
 468            else ""
 469        ),
 470        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 471    }
 472
 473    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 474
 475    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 476
 477    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 478    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 479
 480    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 481        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 487        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 489        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 496        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 508        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 509        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 512        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 516        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 517        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 522        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 523        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 524        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 525        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 526        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 531        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 532        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 533        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 535        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 536        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 542        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 547        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 548        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 549        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 550        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 551        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 553        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 555        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 557        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 559        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 562        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 564        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 565        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 566        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568    }
 569
 570    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 571    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 572
 573    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 574    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 575        exp.Command,
 576        exp.Create,
 577        exp.Delete,
 578        exp.Drop,
 579        exp.From,
 580        exp.Insert,
 581        exp.Join,
 582        exp.MultitableInserts,
 583        exp.Select,
 584        exp.SetOperation,
 585        exp.Update,
 586        exp.Where,
 587        exp.With,
 588    )
 589
 590    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 591    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 592        exp.Binary,
 593        exp.SetOperation,
 594    )
 595
 596    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 597    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 598        exp.Column,
 599        exp.Literal,
 600        exp.Neg,
 601        exp.Paren,
 602    )
 603
 604    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 605        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 606        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 607        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 608        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 609    }
 610
 611    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 612    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 613
 614    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 615
 616    __slots__ = (
 617        "pretty",
 618        "identify",
 619        "normalize",
 620        "pad",
 621        "_indent",
 622        "normalize_functions",
 623        "unsupported_level",
 624        "max_unsupported",
 625        "leading_comma",
 626        "max_text_width",
 627        "comments",
 628        "dialect",
 629        "unsupported_messages",
 630        "_escaped_quote_end",
 631        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 632        "_next_name",
 633        "_identifier_start",
 634        "_identifier_end",
 635    )
 636
 637    def __init__(
 638        self,
 639        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 640        identify: str | bool = False,
 641        normalize: bool = False,
 642        pad: int = 2,
 643        indent: int = 2,
 644        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 645        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 646        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 647        leading_comma: bool = False,
 648        max_text_width: int = 80,
 649        comments: bool = True,
 650        dialect: DialectType = None,
 651    ):
 652        import sqlglot
 653        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 654
 655        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 656        self.identify = identify
 657        self.normalize = normalize
 658        self.pad = pad
 659        self._indent = indent
 660        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 661        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 662        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 663        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 664        self.comments = comments
 665        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 666
 667        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 668        self.normalize_functions = (
 669            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 670        )
 671
 672        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 673        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 674            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 675        )
 676        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 677
 678        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 679
 680        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 681        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 682
 683    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 684        """
 685        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 686
 687        Args:
 688            expression: The syntax tree.
 689            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 690                it is safer to copy.
 691
 692        Returns:
 693            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 694        """
 695        if copy:
 696            expression = expression.copy()
 697
 698        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 699
 700        self.unsupported_messages = []
 701        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 702
 703        if self.pretty:
 704            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 705
 706        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 707            return sql
 708
 709        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 710            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 711                logger.warning(msg)
 712        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 713            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 714
 715        return sql
 716
 717    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 718        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 719        if (
 720            not expression.parent
 721            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 722            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 723        ):
 724            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 725
 726            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 727
 728        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 729            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 730
 731            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 732
 733        return expression
 734
 735    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 736        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 737            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 738        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 739
 740    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 741        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 742
 743    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 744        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 745
 746    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 747        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 748        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 749        return comment
 750
 751    def maybe_comment(
 752        self,
 753        sql: str,
 754        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 755        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 756        separated: bool = False,
 757    ) -> str:
 758        comments = (
 759            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 760            if self.comments
 761            else None
 762        )
 763
 764        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 765            return sql
 766
 767        comments_sql = " ".join(
 768            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 769        )
 770
 771        if not comments_sql:
 772            return sql
 773
 774        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 775
 776        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 777            return (
 778                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 779                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 780                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 781            )
 782
 783        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 784
 785    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 786        this_sql = (
 787            self.sql(expression)
 788            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 789            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 790        )
 791        if not this_sql:
 792            return "()"
 793
 794        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 795        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 796
 797    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 798        original = self.identify
 799        self.identify = False
 800        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 801        self.identify = original
 802        return result
 803
 804    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 805        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 806            return name.upper()
 807        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 808            return name.lower()
 809        return name
 810
 811    def indent(
 812        self,
 813        sql: str,
 814        level: int = 0,
 815        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 816        skip_first: bool = False,
 817        skip_last: bool = False,
 818    ) -> str:
 819        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 820            return sql
 821
 822        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 823        lines = sql.split("\n")
 824
 825        return "\n".join(
 826            (
 827                line
 828                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 829                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 830            )
 831            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 832        )
 833
 834    def sql(
 835        self,
 836        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 837        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 838        comment: bool = True,
 839    ) -> str:
 840        if not expression:
 841            return ""
 842
 843        if isinstance(expression, str):
 844            return expression
 845
 846        if key:
 847            value = expression.args.get(key)
 848            if value:
 849                return self.sql(value)
 850            return ""
 851
 852        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 853
 854        if callable(transform):
 855            sql = transform(self, expression)
 856        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 857            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 858
 859            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 860                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 861            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 862                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 864                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 865            else:
 866                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 867        else:
 868            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 869
 870        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 871
 872    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 873        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 875        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 876
 877    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 878        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 880        options = expression.args.get("options")
 881        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 882        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 883        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 884        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 886
 887    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 888        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 889            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 890        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 891        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 892
 893    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 894        return ".".join(
 895            self.sql(part)
 896            for part in (
 897                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 898                expression.args.get("db"),
 899                expression.args.get("table"),
 900                expression.args.get("this"),
 901            )
 902            if part
 903        )
 904
 905    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 906        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 907
 908        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 909            join_mark = ""
 910            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 911
 912        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 913
 914    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 916        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 917        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 918        return f"{position}{this}"
 919
 920    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 921        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 922        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 923        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 924        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 925        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 926        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 927        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 928        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 929
 930        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 931            kind = ""
 932
 933        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 934
 935    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 937        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 938        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 939
 940    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 942        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 943            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 944        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 945            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 946        else:
 947            persisted = ""
 948        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 949
 950    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 951        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 952
 953    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 954        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 955            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 956        else:
 957            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 958
 959        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 960
 961    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 962        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 963    ) -> str:
 964        this = ""
 965        if expression.this is not None:
 966            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 967            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 968
 969        start = expression.args.get("start")
 970        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 971        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 972        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 973        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 974        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 975        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 976        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 977        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 978        cycle_sql = ""
 979
 980        if cycle is not None:
 981            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 982            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 983
 984        sequence_opts = ""
 985        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 986            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 987            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 988
 989        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 990        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 991
 992        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 993
 994    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 995        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 996    ) -> str:
 997        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 998        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 999        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1000
1001    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1002        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1003    ) -> str:
1004        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1005
1006    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1007        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1008
1009    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1010        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1011
1012    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1013        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1014        if desc is not None:
1015            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1016        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1017
1018    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1021        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1022        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1023        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1024        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1025        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1026        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1027
1028    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1029        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1030
1031    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1032        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1033        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1034        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1035        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1036
1037        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1038
1039        properties_sql = ""
1040        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1041            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1042        ):
1043            properties_sql = self.sql(
1044                exp.Properties(
1045                    expressions=[
1046                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1047                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1048                    ]
1049                )
1050            )
1051
1052            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1053                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1054            elif not self.pretty:
1055                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1056                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1057
1058        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1059        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1060
1061        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1062        if expression_sql:
1063            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1064
1065            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1066                postalias_props_sql = ""
1067                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1068                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1069                        exp.Properties(
1070                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1071                        ),
1072                        wrapped=False,
1073                    )
1074                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1075                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1076
1077        postindex_props_sql = ""
1078        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1079            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1080                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1081                wrapped=False,
1082                prefix=" ",
1083            )
1084
1085        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1086        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1087        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1088
1089        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1090        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1091        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1092
1093        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1094        if clustered is None:
1095            clustered_sql = ""
1096        elif clustered:
1097            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1098        else:
1099            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100
1101        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1102        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1103            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1104                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1105                sep=" ",
1106                prefix=" ",
1107                wrapped=False,
1108            )
1109
1110        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1111
1112        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1113        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1114            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1115                exp.Properties(
1116                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1117                ),
1118                sep=" ",
1119                prefix=" ",
1120                wrapped=False,
1121            )
1122
1123        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1124        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1125        no_schema_binding = (
1126            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1127        )
1128
1129        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1130        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1131
1132        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1133        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1134
1135    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1136        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1137        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1138        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1139        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1140        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1141        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1142        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1143        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1144        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1145        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1146
1147        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1148        if cache is None:
1149            cache_str = ""
1150        elif cache is True:
1151            cache_str = " CACHE"
1152        else:
1153            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1154
1155        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1156        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1157
1158        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1159
1160    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1162        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1163        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1164        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1165
1166    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1167        style = expression.args.get("style")
1168        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1169        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1170        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1171        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1172
1173    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1174        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1175        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1176
1177    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1178        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1179        if with_:
1180            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1181        return sql
1182
1183    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1184        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1185        recursive = (
1186            "RECURSIVE "
1187            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1188            else ""
1189        )
1190
1191        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1192
1193    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1194        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1195
1196        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1197        if materialized is False:
1198            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1199        elif materialized:
1200            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1201
1202        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1203
1204    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1205        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1206        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1207        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1208
1209        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1210            columns = ""
1211            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1212
1213        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1214            alias = self._next_name()
1215
1216        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1217
1218    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1220        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1221            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1222        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1223
1224    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1227            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1228        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1229
1230    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1233            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1234        return this
1235
1236    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1239
1240        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1241            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1242            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1243        else:
1244            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1245            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1246
1247        if escape:
1248            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1249            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1250        else:
1251            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1252            escape_sql = ""
1253
1254        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1255            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1256
1257        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1258
1259    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1260        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1261        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1262
1263    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1266        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1267        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1268
1269    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1270        nested = ""
1271        values = ""
1272        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1273
1274        type_value = expression.this
1275        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1276            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1277        else:
1278            type_sql = (
1279                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1280                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1281                else type_value
1282            )
1283
1284        if interior:
1285            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1286                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1287                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1288                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1289                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1290                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1291            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1292                nested = f" {interior}"
1293            else:
1294                nested = f"({interior})"
1295
1296        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1297        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1298            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1299            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1300        ):
1301            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1302
1303        return type_sql
1304
1305    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1306        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1307        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1308        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1309        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1310
1311    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1313        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1314        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1315        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1316        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1317        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1318        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1319        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1320        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1321        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1322        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1323        if self.RETURNING_END:
1324            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1325        else:
1326            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1327        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1328
1329    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1332        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1333        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1334        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1335        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1336        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1337        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1338        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1339        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1340        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1341        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1342        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1343        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1344        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1345
1346    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1347        op_type = type(expression)
1348        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1349
1350        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1351        if (
1352            distinct is False
1353            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1354            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1355        ):
1356            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1357
1358        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1359
1360        if distinct is None:
1361            distinct = default_distinct
1362            if distinct is None:
1363                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1364
1365        if distinct is default_distinct:
1366            kind = ""
1367        else:
1368            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1369
1370        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1371        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1372
1373    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1374        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1375            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1376            order = expression.args.get("order")
1377
1378            if limit or order:
1379                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1380
1381                if limit:
1382                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1383                if order:
1384                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1385                return self.sql(select)
1386
1387        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1388        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1389
1390        while stack:
1391            node = stack.pop()
1392
1393            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1394                stack.append(node.expression)
1395                stack.append(
1396                    self.maybe_comment(
1397                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1398                    )
1399                )
1400                stack.append(node.this)
1401            else:
1402                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1403
1404        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1405        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1406        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1407
1408    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1409        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1410        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1411        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1412        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1413        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1414            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1415        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1416        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1417
1418    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1419        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1420            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1421            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1422            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1423
1424        agg = expression.this
1425        agg_arg = agg.this
1426        cond = expression.expression.this
1427        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1428        return self.sql(agg)
1429
1430    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1431        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1432            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1433            return ""
1434
1435        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1436
1437    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1438        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1439        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1440        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1441        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1442        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1443        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1444        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1445        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1446        if include:
1447            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1448        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1449        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1450        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1451        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1452        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1453        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1454
1455        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1456
1457    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1458        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1459        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1460        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1461        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1463        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1464        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1465
1466        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1467
1468        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1469        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1470
1471    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1472        text = expression.name
1473        lower = text.lower()
1474        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1475        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1476        if (
1477            expression.quoted
1478            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1479            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1480            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1481        ):
1482            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1483        return text
1484
1485    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1486        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1487        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1488            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1489
1490        return text
1491
1492    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1493        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1494        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1495            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1496        return text
1497
1498    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1499        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1500        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1501        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1502        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1503        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1504
1505    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1506        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1507        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1508
1509    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1510        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1511
1512    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1513        root_properties = []
1514        with_properties = []
1515
1516        for p in expression.expressions:
1517            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1518            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1519                with_properties.append(p)
1520            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1521                root_properties.append(p)
1522
1523        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1524        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1525
1526        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1527            with_props = " " + with_props
1528
1529        return root_props + with_props
1530
1531    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1532        if properties.expressions:
1533            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1534        return ""
1535
1536    def properties(
1537        self,
1538        properties: exp.Properties,
1539        prefix: str = "",
1540        sep: str = ", ",
1541        suffix: str = "",
1542        wrapped: bool = True,
1543    ) -> str:
1544        if properties.expressions:
1545            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1546            if expressions:
1547                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1548                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1549        return ""
1550
1551    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1552        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1553
1554    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1555        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1556        for p in properties.expressions:
1557            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1558            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1559                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1560            else:
1561                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1562
1563        return properties_locs
1564
1565    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1567            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1569
1570    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1571        property_cls = expression.__class__
1572        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1573            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1574
1575        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1576        if not property_name:
1577            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1578
1579        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1580
1581    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1582        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1583            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1584            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1585
1586            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1587            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1588                like = f"({like})"
1589
1590            return like
1591
1592        if expression.expressions:
1593            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1594
1595        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1596        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1597
1598    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1599        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1600        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1601        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1602
1603    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1604        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1605        local = expression.args.get("local")
1606        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1607        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1608        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1609        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1610        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1611
1612    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1613        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1615        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1616
1617    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1618        if expression.args.get("default"):
1619            property = "DEFAULT"
1620        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1621            property = "ON"
1622        else:
1623            property = "OFF"
1624        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1625
1626    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1627        if expression.args.get("no"):
1628            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1629        if expression.args.get("default"):
1630            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631
1632        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1633        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1634
1635    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1636        default = expression.args.get("default")
1637        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1638        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1639        if default or minimum or maximum:
1640            if default:
1641                prop = "DEFAULT"
1642            elif minimum:
1643                prop = "MINIMUM"
1644            else:
1645                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1646            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1647        units = expression.args.get("units")
1648        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1649        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1650
1651    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1652        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1653        always = expression.args.get("always")
1654        default = expression.args.get("default")
1655        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1656        never = expression.args.get("never")
1657
1658        if autotemp is not None:
1659            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1660        elif always:
1661            prop = "ALWAYS"
1662        elif default:
1663            prop = "DEFAULT"
1664        elif manual:
1665            prop = "MANUAL"
1666        elif never:
1667            prop = "NEVER"
1668        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1669
1670    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1671        no = expression.args.get("no")
1672        no = " NO" if no else ""
1673        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1674        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1675        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1676        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1677        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1678
1679    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1680        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1681            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1682        if expression.this:
1683            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1685            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1686
1687        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1688        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1689        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1690
1691    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693
1694        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1695        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1696            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1697        else:
1698            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1699
1700        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1701
1702    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1703        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1704        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1705        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1706        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1707        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1708        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1709        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1710
1711    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1712        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1713        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1714        statistics_sql = ""
1715        if statistics is not None:
1716            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1717        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1718
1719    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1722        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1723        data_consistency = (
1724            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1725        )
1726        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1727        retention_period = (
1728            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1729        )
1730
1731        if this:
1732            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1733        else:
1734            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1735
1736        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1737
1738        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1739
1740    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1743
1744        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1745            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1746        else:
1747            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1748
1749        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1750        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1751        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1752        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1753        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1754        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1755        if is_function:
1756            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1757        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1758
1759        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1760        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1761        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1762        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1763        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1764        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1765        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1766        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1767
1768        if self.RETURNING_END:
1769            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1770        else:
1771            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1772
1773        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1774        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1775        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1776        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1777
1778        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1779        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1780
1781        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1783
1784    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1786
1787    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1788        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1789        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1792        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1793
1794    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1795        return expression.name
1796
1797    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1798        return expression.name
1799
1800    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1801        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1802
1803        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1804        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1805
1806        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1807        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1808        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1809
1810        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1811        if expressions:
1812            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1813            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1814
1815        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1816
1817    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1818        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1819
1820    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1821        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1822        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1823        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1824        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1825        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1826        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1827        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1828        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1829        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1830        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1831        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1832        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1833        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1834
1835    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1836        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1837
1838    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1839        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1840        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1841        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1842        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1843
1844    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1847        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1848        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1849
1850    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1851        return ".".join(
1852            self.sql(part)
1853            for part in (
1854                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1855                expression.args.get("db"),
1856                expression.args.get("this"),
1857            )
1858            if part is not None
1859        )
1860
1861    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1862        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1863        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1864        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1865        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1866        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1867        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1869        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1870
1871        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1872        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1873            sample_pre_alias = sample
1874            sample_post_alias = ""
1875        else:
1876            sample_pre_alias = ""
1877            sample_post_alias = sample
1878
1879        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1880        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1881        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1882        joins = self.indent(
1883            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1884        )
1885        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1886
1887        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1888        if file_format:
1889            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1890            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1891            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1892
1893        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1894        if ordinality:
1895            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1896            alias = ""
1897
1898        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1899        if when:
1900            table = f"{table} {when}"
1901
1902        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1903        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1904
1905        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1906        if rows_from:
1907            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1908
1909        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1910
1911    def tablesample_sql(
1912        self,
1913        expression: exp.TableSample,
1914        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1915    ) -> str:
1916        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1917        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1918        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1919        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1920        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1921        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1922        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1923        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1924        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1925
1926        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1927        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1928            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1929
1930        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1931        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1932            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1933
1934        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1935        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1936            expr = f"({expr})"
1937
1938        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1939
1940    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1942
1943        if expression.this:
1944            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1945            if not expressions:
1946                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1947
1948            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1949            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1950            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1951            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1952            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1953
1954        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1955        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1956        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1957
1958        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1959
1960        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1961        if include_nulls is not None:
1962            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1963        else:
1964            nulls = ""
1965
1966        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1967        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1968        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1969
1970    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1971        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1972        kind = expression.text("kind")
1973        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1974        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1975
1976    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1977        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1978
1979    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1983        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1984        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1985        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1986        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1987        if self.RETURNING_END:
1988            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1989        else:
1990            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1991        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1993
1994    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1995        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1996
1997        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1998        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1999            args = self.expressions(expression)
2000            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2001            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2002            values = (
2003                f"({values})"
2004                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2005                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2006                else values
2007            )
2008            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2009
2010        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2011        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2012        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2013
2014        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2015
2016        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2017            row = tup.expressions
2018
2019            if i == 0 and column_names:
2020                row = [
2021                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2022                ]
2023
2024            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2025
2026        if self.pretty:
2027            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2028            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2029            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2030            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2031            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2032
2033        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2034        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2035        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2036
2037    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2038        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2039
2040    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2041    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2042        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2043        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2044        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2045
2046    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2047        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2048
2049    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2050        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2051        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2052
2053    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2055        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2056
2057    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2058        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2059        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2060
2061    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2062        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2063        if group_by_all is True:
2064            modifier = " ALL"
2065        elif group_by_all is False:
2066            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2067        else:
2068            modifier = ""
2069
2070        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2071
2072        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2073        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2074        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2075
2076        groupings = csv(
2077            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2078            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2079            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2080            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2081            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2082        )
2083
2084        if (
2085            expression.expressions
2086            and groupings
2087            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2088        ):
2089            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2090
2091        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2092
2093    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2094        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2095        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2096
2097    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2098        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2099        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2100        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2101        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2102        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2103        return start + connect
2104
2105    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2106        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2107
2108    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2109        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2110            side = None
2111        else:
2112            side = expression.side
2113
2114        op_sql = " ".join(
2115            op
2116            for op in (
2117                expression.method,
2118                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2119                side,
2120                expression.kind,
2121                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2122            )
2123            if op
2124        )
2125        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2126        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2127        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2128        using = expression.args.get("using")
2129
2130        if not on_sql and using:
2131            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2132
2133        this = expression.this
2134        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2135
2136        if on_sql:
2137            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2138            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2139            if using:
2140                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2141            else:
2142                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2143        elif not op_sql:
2144            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2145                return f" {this_sql}"
2146
2147            return f", {this_sql}"
2148
2149        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2150            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2151
2152        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2153
2154    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2155        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2156        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2157        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2158
2159    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2160        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2161
2162        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2163        if cross_apply is True:
2164            op = "INNER JOIN "
2165        elif cross_apply is False:
2166            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2167        else:
2168            op = ""
2169
2170        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2171
2172    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174
2175        if expression.args.get("view"):
2176            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2177            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2178            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2179            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2180            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2181            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2182
2183        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2184        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2185        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2186
2187    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189
2190        args = [
2191            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2192            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2193            if e
2194        ]
2195
2196        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2197        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2199        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2200
2201        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2202
2203    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        value = expression.expression
2206        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2208        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2210
2211    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2212        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2213        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2216        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2217        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2218        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2219        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2220
2221    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2222        expressions = (
2223            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2224        )
2225        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2226        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2227
2228    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2229        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2230
2231    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2232        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2233            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2234            return ""
2235
2236        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2237        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2238        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2239        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2240
2241        if wait is not None:
2242            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2243                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2244            else:
2245                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2246
2247        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2248
2249    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2250        text = expression.this or ""
2251        if expression.is_string:
2252            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2253        return text
2254
2255    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2256        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2257            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2258            text = "".join(
2259                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2260            )
2261
2262        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2263            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2264        )
2265
2266    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2267        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2268        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2269        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2270        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2271        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2272        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2273        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2274        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2275        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2276        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2277        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2278
2279    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2280        return "NULL"
2281
2282    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2283        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2284
2285    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2288        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2289        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2290
2291    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2292        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2293        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2294        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2295        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2296        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2297        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2298        interpolated_values = [
2299            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2300            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2301        ]
2302        interpolate = (
2303            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2304        )
2305        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2306
2307    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2308        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2309
2310    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2311        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2312
2313    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2314        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2315
2316    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2317        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2318        asc = not desc
2319
2320        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2321        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2322        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2323        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2324        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2325
2326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2327
2328        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2329        nulls_sort_change = ""
2330        if nulls_first and (
2331            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2332        ):
2333            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2334        elif (
2335            nulls_last
2336            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2337            and not nulls_are_last
2338        ):
2339            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2340
2341        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2342        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2343            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2344            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2345                self.unsupported(
2346                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2347                )
2348                nulls_sort_change = ""
2349            elif (
2350                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2351                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2352                and (
2353                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2354                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2355                )
2356            ):
2357                self.unsupported(
2358                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2359                )
2360                nulls_sort_change = ""
2361            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2362                if expression.this.is_int:
2363                    self.unsupported(
2364                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2365                    )
2366                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2367                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2368                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2369                nulls_sort_change = ""
2370
2371        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2372        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2373
2374        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2375
2376    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2377        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2378        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2379
2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2381
2382        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2383
2384    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2385        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2386        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2387        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2388        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2389        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2390        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2391        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2392        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2393        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2394        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2395        definition_sqls = [
2396            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2397            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2398        ]
2399        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2400        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2401        body = "".join(
2402            (
2403                partition,
2404                order,
2405                measures,
2406                rows,
2407                after,
2408                pattern,
2409                define,
2410            )
2411        )
2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2413        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2414        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2415
2416    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2417        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2418
2419        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2420            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2421        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2422            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2423
2424        return csv(
2425            *sqls,
2426            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2427            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2428            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2429            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2430            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2431            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2432            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2433            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2434            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2435            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2436            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2437            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2438            self.options_modifier(expression),
2439            sep="",
2440        )
2441
2442    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2443        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2444        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2445
2446    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2447        return ""
2448
2449    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2450        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2451    ) -> t.List[str]:
2452        return [
2453            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2454            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2455        ]
2456
2457    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2458        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2459        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2460        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2461
2462    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2463        into = expression.args.get("into")
2464        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2465            into.pop()
2466
2467        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2468        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2469        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2471
2472        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2473        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2474            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2475            limit.pop()
2476        else:
2477            top = ""
2478
2479        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2480
2481        if kind:
2482            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2483                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2484            else:
2485                if kind == "STRUCT":
2486                    expressions = self.expressions(
2487                        sqls=[
2488                            self.sql(
2489                                exp.Struct(
2490                                    expressions=[
2491                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2492                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2493                                        else e
2494                                        for e in expression.expressions
2495                                    ]
2496                                )
2497                            )
2498                        ]
2499                    )
2500                kind = ""
2501
2502        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2503        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2504        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2505        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2506        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2507            expression,
2508            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2509            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2510            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2511        )
2512
2513        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2514
2515        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2516            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2517                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2518            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2519                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2520            else:
2521                table_kind = ""
2522            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2523
2524        return sql
2525
2526    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2529        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2530
2531    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2532        if expression.expressions:
2533            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2534        return ""
2535
2536    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2537        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2538        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2539        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2540        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2541        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2542        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2543        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2544
2545    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2547        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2548
2549    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2551        kind = expression.text("kind")
2552        if kind:
2553            kind = f"{kind}."
2554        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2555
2556    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2557        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2558
2559    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2560        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2561        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2562        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2563        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2564            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2565
2566            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2567            expression.set("sample", None)
2568
2569        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2570        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2572
2573    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2574        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2575        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2576
2577    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2578        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2579
2580        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2581        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2582
2583        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2584            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2585                alias.append("columns", offset)
2586
2587        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2588            columns = alias.columns
2589            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2590        else:
2591            alias = self.sql(alias)
2592
2593        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2594        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2595            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2596        else:
2597            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2598                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2599            elif offset:
2600                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2601            else:
2602                suffix = alias
2603
2604        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2605
2606    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2607        return ""
2608
2609    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2610        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2611        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2612
2613    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2615        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2616        order = expression.args.get("order")
2617        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2618        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2619        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2620        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2621
2622        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2623
2624        first = expression.args.get("first")
2625        if first is None:
2626            first = ""
2627        else:
2628            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2629
2630        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2631            return f"{this} {alias}"
2632
2633        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2634        return f"{this} ({args})"
2635
2636    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2637        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2638        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2639
2640    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2642        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2643        end = (
2644            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2645            or "CURRENT ROW"
2646        )
2647        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2648
2649    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2651        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2652        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2653
2654    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2657        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2658        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2659
2660    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2661        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2662    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2663        return apply_index_offset(
2664            expression.this,
2665            expression.expressions,
2666            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2667        )
2668
2669    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2670        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2671        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2672        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2673
2674    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2675        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2676
2677    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2679        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2680            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2681                this = self.wrap(this)
2682            return f"ANY{this}"
2683        return f"ANY {this}"
2684
2685    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2686        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2687
2688    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2691
2692        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2693            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2694            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2695
2696        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2697
2698        if default:
2699            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2700
2701        statements.append("END")
2702
2703        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2704            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2705
2706        return " ".join(statements)
2707
2708    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2711        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2712
2713    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2714        order = expression.args.get("order")
2715        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2716        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2717
2718    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2720        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2721        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2722
2723    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2724        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2725
2726        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2727            func_name = "LTRIM"
2728        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2729            func_name = "RTRIM"
2730        else:
2731            func_name = "TRIM"
2732
2733        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2734
2735    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2736        args = expression.expressions
2737        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2738            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2739
2740        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2741            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2742
2743        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2744            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2745
2746        return args
2747
2748    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2749        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2750
2751        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2752        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2753            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2754
2755        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2756
2757    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2758        return self.func(
2759            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2760        )
2761
2762    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2764        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2765
2766    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2768        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2769        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2770        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2771        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2772        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2773        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2774        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2775
2776    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2777        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2778        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2779        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2780        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2781
2782    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2783        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2784
2785    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2786        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2787        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2788        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2789
2790    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2791        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2792
2793    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2794        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2795
2796        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2797            path = self.escape_str(path)
2798
2799        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2800            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2801
2802        return path
2803
2804    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2805        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2806            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2807            if not callable(transform):
2808                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2809                return ""
2810
2811            return transform(self, expression)
2812
2813        if isinstance(expression, int):
2814            return str(expression)
2815
2816        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2817            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2818            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2819        else:
2820            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2821            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2822
2823        return escaped
2824
2825    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2826        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2827
2828    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2829        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2830        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2831
2832        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2833        if unique_keys is not None:
2834            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2835        else:
2836            unique_keys = ""
2837
2838        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2839        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2840        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2841        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2842
2843        return self.func(
2844            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2845            *expression.expressions,
2846            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2847        )
2848
2849    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2850        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2851
2852    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2853        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2854        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2855        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2856        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2857        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2858        return self.func(
2859            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2860        )
2861
2862    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2865        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2866        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2867        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2868        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2869        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2870        return self.func(
2871            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2872            this,
2873            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2874        )
2875
2876    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2877        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2878        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2879        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2880
2881        if nested_schema:
2882            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2883
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2886        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2887        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2888
2889    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2890        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2891
2892    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2895        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2896        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2897        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2898        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2899        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2900        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2901        return self.func(
2902            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2903        )
2904
2905    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2907        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2908        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2909        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2910        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2911        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2912
2913    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2915        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2916        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2917        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2918        with_ = (
2919            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2920            if expressions
2921            else ""
2922        )
2923        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2924
2925    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2926        query = expression.args.get("query")
2927        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2928        field = expression.args.get("field")
2929        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2930
2931        if query:
2932            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2933        elif unnest:
2934            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2935        elif field:
2936            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2937        else:
2938            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2939
2940        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2941
2942    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2943        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2944
2945    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2946        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2947        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2948            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2949        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2950
2951        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2952            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2953            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2954
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956        if this:
2957            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2958            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2959
2960        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2961
2962    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2963        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2964
2965    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2967        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2968        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2969        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2970        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2971        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2972
2973    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2974        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2975        parent = expression.parent
2976        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2977        return self.func(
2978            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2979        )
2980
2981    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2982        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2983        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2984
2985    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2986        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2987        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2989        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2990
2991    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2992        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2993
2994    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2995        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2996        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2998
2999    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3000        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3001
3002        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3003        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3004
3005        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3006            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3007        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3008            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3009
3010        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3011
3012    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3013        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3014
3015    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3018        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3019
3020    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3023        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3024
3025    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3028        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3029
3030    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3031        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3032
3033    def and_sql(
3034        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3035    ) -> str:
3036        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3037
3038    def or_sql(
3039        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3040    ) -> str:
3041        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3042
3043    def xor_sql(
3044        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3045    ) -> str:
3046        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3047
3048    def connector_sql(
3049        self,
3050        expression: exp.Connector,
3051        op: str,
3052        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3053    ) -> str:
3054        if stack is not None:
3055            if expression.expressions:
3056                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3057            else:
3058                stack.append(expression.right)
3059                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3060                    for comment in expression.comments:
3061                        if comment:
3062                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3063                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3064            return op
3065
3066        stack = [expression]
3067        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3068        ops = set()
3069
3070        while stack:
3071            node = stack.pop()
3072            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3073                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3074            else:
3075                sql = self.sql(node)
3076                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3077                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3078                else:
3079                    sqls.append(sql)
3080
3081        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3082        return sep.join(sqls)
3083
3084    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3086
3087    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3089
3090    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3091        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3092
3093    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3095
3096    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3098
3099    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3101
3102    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3103        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3104        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3105        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3106        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3107        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3108        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3109        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3110
3111    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3112        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3113        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3114
3115    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3116        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3117            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3118        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3119
3120    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3122
3123    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3125        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3126        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3127        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3128        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3129        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3130
3131    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3133        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3134        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3135        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3136        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3137        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3138        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3139        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3140        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3141
3142    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3143        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3144        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3145        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3146        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3147
3148        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3149            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3150
3151        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3152
3153    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3154        return "BEGIN"
3155
3156    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3157        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3158        if chain is not None:
3159            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3160
3161        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3162
3163    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3164        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3165        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3166        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3167
3168    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3170
3171        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3172        if dtype:
3173            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3174            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3175            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3176            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3177            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3178
3179        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3180        if default:
3181            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3182
3183        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3184        if comment:
3185            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3186
3187        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3188        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3189
3190        if not drop and not allow_null:
3191            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3192
3193        if allow_null is not None:
3194            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3195            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3196
3197        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3198
3199    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3201        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3202            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3203        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3204
3205    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3206        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3209        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3210        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3211
3212    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3213        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3214            # Remove db from tables
3215            expression = expression.transform(
3216                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3217            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3219        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3220
3221    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3222        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3223        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3224        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3225        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3226
3227    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3228        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3229        return f"SET {exprs}"
3230
3231    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3232        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3233
3234        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3235            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3236        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3237            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3238        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3239            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3240        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3241            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3242        else:
3243            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3244
3245        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3246        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3247        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3248        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3249        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3250        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3251        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3252        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3253
3254        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3255
3256    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3257        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3258            return self.expressions(
3259                expression,
3260                key="actions",
3261                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3262                skip_first=True,
3263            )
3264        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3265
3266    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3268        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3269        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3270
3271    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3272        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3273
3274    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3275        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3276
3277        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3278            case = exp.case()
3279            for arg in expression.expressions:
3280                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3281            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3282
3283        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3284
3285        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3286        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3287        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3288
3289    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3290        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3291
3292    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3293        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3294
3295    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3296        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3297        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3298        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3299        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3300
3301    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3302        return self.sql(
3303            exp.Cast(
3304                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3305                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3306            )
3307        )
3308
3309    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3310        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3311            return self.func(
3312                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3313            )
3314        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3315
3316    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3317        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3318
3319        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3320            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3321
3322        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3323            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3324                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3325
3326        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3327            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3328                return self.sql(
3329                    exp.cast(
3330                        l / r,
3331                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3332                    )
3333                )
3334
3335        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3336
3337    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3338        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3339
3340    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3341        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3342
3343    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3344        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3345
3346    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3347        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3348
3349    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3350        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3351
3352    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3353        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3354
3355    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3356        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3357
3358    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3359        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3360
3361    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3362        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3363
3364    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3365        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3366
3367    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3368        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3369
3370    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3371        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3372            return self.sql(
3373                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3374            )
3375        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3376
3377    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3378        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3379
3380    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3381        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3382
3383    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3385
3386    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3388
3389    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3390        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3391
3392    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3394
3395    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3397
3398    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3400
3401    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3403
3404    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3406
3407    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3409
3410    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3412
3413    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3414        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3415
3416    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3417        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3418            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3419            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3420
3421        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3422
3423    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3424        this = expression.this
3425        expr = expression.expression
3426
3427        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3428            this, expr = expr, this
3429        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3430            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3431                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3432
3433            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3434
3435        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3436
3437    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3438        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3439        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3442        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3443
3444    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3445        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3446        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3447        binary_type = type(expression)
3448
3449        while stack:
3450            node = stack.pop()
3451
3452            if type(node) is binary_type:
3453                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3454                if op_func:
3455                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3456
3457                stack.append(node.right)
3458                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3459                stack.append(node.left)
3460            else:
3461                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3462
3463        return "".join(sqls)
3464
3465    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3466        args = []
3467
3468        for key in expression.arg_types:
3469            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3470
3471            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3472                for value in arg_value:
3473                    args.append(value)
3474            elif arg_value is not None:
3475                args.append(arg_value)
3476
3477        if self.normalize_functions:
3478            name = expression.sql_name()
3479        else:
3480            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3481
3482        return self.func(name, *args)
3483
3484    def func(
3485        self,
3486        name: str,
3487        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3488        prefix: str = "(",
3489        suffix: str = ")",
3490        normalize: bool = True,
3491    ) -> str:
3492        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3493        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3494
3495    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3496        arg_sqls = tuple(
3497            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3498        )
3499        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3500            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3501        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3502
3503    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3504        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3505
3506    def format_time(
3507        self,
3508        expression: exp.Expression,
3509        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3510        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3511    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3512        return format_time(
3513            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3514            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3515            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3516        )
3517
3518    def expressions(
3519        self,
3520        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3521        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3522        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3523        flat: bool = False,
3524        indent: bool = True,
3525        skip_first: bool = False,
3526        skip_last: bool = False,
3527        sep: str = ", ",
3528        prefix: str = "",
3529        dynamic: bool = False,
3530        new_line: bool = False,
3531    ) -> str:
3532        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3533
3534        if not expressions:
3535            return ""
3536
3537        if flat:
3538            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3539
3540        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3541        result_sqls = []
3542
3543        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3544            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3545            if not sql:
3546                continue
3547
3548            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3549
3550            if self.pretty:
3551                if self.leading_comma:
3552                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3553                else:
3554                    result_sqls.append(
3555                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3556                    )
3557            else:
3558                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3559
3560        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3561            if new_line:
3562                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3563                result_sqls.append("")
3564            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3565        else:
3566            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3567
3568        return (
3569            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3570            if indent
3571            else result_sql
3572        )
3573
3574    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3575        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3576        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3577        if flat:
3578            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3579        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3580
3581    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3582        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3583        if not property_name:
3584            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3585        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3586
3587    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3588        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3589
3590    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3591        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3592
3593    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3595        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3596        expressions = (
3597            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3598        )
3599        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3600
3601    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3604        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3605
3606    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3607        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3608
3609    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3610        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3611        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3612        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3613        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3614
3615        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3616        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3617            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3618            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3619            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3620            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3621        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3622            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3623                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3624            else:
3625                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3626        else:
3627            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3628        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3629
3630    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3631        table = expression.this
3632        table_alias = ""
3633
3634        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3635        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3636            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3637            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3638
3639        this = self.sql(table)
3640        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3641        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3643        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3644        if returning:
3645            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3646
3647        sep = self.sep()
3648
3649        return self.prepend_ctes(
3650            expression,
3651            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3652        )
3653
3654    @unsupported_args("format")
3655    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3656        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3657
3658    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3659        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3660            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3661            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3662
3663        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3664        if not fmt:
3665            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3666            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3667
3668        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3669
3670    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3672        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3673        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3674        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3675        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3676
3677    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3679        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3680        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3681        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3682
3683    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3684        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3685
3686    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3687        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3688
3689    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3690    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3691        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3692        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3693        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3695        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3696        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3697        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3698
3699    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3700        return ""
3701
3702    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3704        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3705        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3706        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3707        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3708
3709    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3711        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3712
3713        if having:
3714            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3715
3716        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3717
3718    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3719        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3720        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3721        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3722        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3723        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3724        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3725        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3726        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3727        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3728        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3729        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3730        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3731        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3732
3733    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3734        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3735        if key_block_size:
3736            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3737
3738        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3739        if using:
3740            return f"USING {using}"
3741
3742        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3743        if parser:
3744            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3745
3746        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3747        if comment:
3748            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3749
3750        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3751        if visible is not None:
3752            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3753
3754        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3755        if engine_attr:
3756            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3757
3758        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3759        if secondary_engine_attr:
3760            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3761
3762        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3763        return ""
3764
3765    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3766        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3767        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3768
3769    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3770        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3771        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3773        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3774        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3775        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3776        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3777        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3778        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3779        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3780        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3781
3782    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3783        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3784            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3785
3786        case = exp.Case().when(
3787            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3788            expression.args["true"],
3789            copy=False,
3790        )
3791        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3792        if else_cond:
3793            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3794
3795        return self.sql(case)
3796
3797    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3799        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3800        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3801        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3802        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3803        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3804
3805    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3806        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3807
3808    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3809        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3810
3811    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3812        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3813        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3814        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3815        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3816        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3817        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3818
3819    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3822        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3823
3824    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3826        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3827        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3828
3829    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3830        arg = expression.this
3831        if not arg.type:
3832            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3833
3834            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3835
3836        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3837            return self.sql(arg)
3838
3839        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3840        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3841
3842    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3843        this = expression.this
3844        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3845            return self.sql(this)
3846
3847        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3848
3849    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3850        this = expression.this
3851        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3852            return self.sql(this)
3853
3854        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3855
3856    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3857        this = expression.this
3858        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3859
3860        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3861            return self.sql(
3862                exp.cast(
3863                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3864                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3865                )
3866            )
3867
3868        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3869            return self.sql(this)
3870
3871        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3872
3873    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3874        return self.sql(
3875            exp.func(
3876                "DATEDIFF",
3877                expression.this,
3878                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3879                "day",
3880            )
3881        )
3882
3883    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3884        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3885            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3886
3887        unit = expression.text("unit")
3888        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3889            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3890
3891        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3892
3893    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3894        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3895
3896        return self.func(
3897            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3898        )
3899
3900    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3901        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3902            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3903            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3904            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3905            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3906
3907        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3908
3909        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3910        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3911            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3912
3913        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3914
3915    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3916        expression.set(
3917            "expressions",
3918            [
3919                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3920                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3921                else e
3922                for e in expression.expressions
3923            ],
3924        )
3925
3926        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3927
3928    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3929        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3930        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3931
3932        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3933
3934    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3935        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3936        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3937
3938        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3939
3940        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3941        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3942
3943        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3944        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3945
3946        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3947        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3948
3949        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3950        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3951
3952        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3953
3954    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3955    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3956    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3957        to = expression.this
3958        value = expression.expression
3959        style = expression.args.get("style")
3960        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3961        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3962
3963        if not to or not value:
3964            return ""
3965
3966        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3967        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3968            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3969
3970        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3971        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3972
3973        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3974        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3975            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3976
3977            style_value = style.name
3978            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3979            if not converted_style:
3980                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3981
3982            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3983
3984            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3985                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3986            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3987                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3988            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3989                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3990            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3991                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3992
3993        if not transformed:
3994            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3995
3996        return self.sql(transformed)
3997
3998    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3999        this = expression.this
4000        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4001            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4002            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4003
4004        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4005            return f".{this}"
4006
4007        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4008        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
4009
4010    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4011        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4012        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4013
4014    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4015        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4016            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4017
4018            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4019
4020        return expression
4021
4022    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4023        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4024            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4025            mods = sorted(
4026                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4027                key=lambda x: 0
4028                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4029                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4030            )
4031
4032            if mods:
4033                mod = mods[0]
4034                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4035                this.meta["inline"] = True
4036                mod.this.replace(this)
4037                return self.sql(expression.this)
4038
4039            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4040
4041            if agg_func:
4042                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4043
4044        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4045
4046    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4047        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4048        if self.pretty:
4049            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4050        return string
4051
4052    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4053        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4054
4055        if expression.expressions:
4056            upper = option.upper()
4057
4058            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4059            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4060
4061            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4062            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4063            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4064            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4065
4066        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4067
4068        if not value:
4069            return option
4070
4071        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4072
4073        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4074
4075    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4076        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4077        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4078            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4079            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4080            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4081        else:
4082            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4083            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4084            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4085
4086        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4087        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4088
4089        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4090        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4091
4092        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4093        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4094
4095        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4096        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4097
4098        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4099
4100    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4102        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4103
4104        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4105        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4106        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4107        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4108
4109        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4110        params = self.expressions(
4111            expression,
4112            key="params",
4113            sep=sep,
4114            new_line=True,
4115            skip_last=True,
4116            skip_first=True,
4117            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4118        )
4119
4120        if params:
4121            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4122                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4123            elif not self.pretty:
4124                params = f" {params}"
4125
4126        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4127
4128    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4129        return ""
4130
4131    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4132        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4133        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4134        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4135        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4136        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4137
4138        if filter_col or retention_period:
4139            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4140
4141        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4142
4143    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4144        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4145    ) -> str:
4146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4147        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4148        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4149        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4150
4151    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4153        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4154        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4155
4156    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4157        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4158
4159    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4161        expr = expression.expression
4162
4163        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4164            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4165            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4166        else:
4167            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4168
4169        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4170
4171    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4172        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4173            return self.sql(expression.this)
4174
4175        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4176
4177    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4178        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4179        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4180
4181        if lower and upper:
4182            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4183        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4184
4185    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4186        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4187        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4188        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4189        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4190        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4191        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4192
4193        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4194
4195    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4196        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4197
4198        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4199        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4200            fill_pattern = "' '"
4201
4202        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4203
4204    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4205        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4206        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4207
4208    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4209        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4210
4211        parent = expression.parent
4212        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4213            parent = parent.parent
4214
4215        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4216            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4217
4218        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4219            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4220
4221        return self.sql(generate_series)
4222
4223    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4224        exprs = expression.expressions
4225        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4226            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4227        else:
4228            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4229
4230        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4231
4232    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4233        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4234            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4235
4236        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4237        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4238        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4239
4240        if source_tz and timestamp:
4241            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4242                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4243            )
4244
4245        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4246
4247        return self.sql(expr)
4248
4249    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4251        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4252
4253        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4254
4255        if _with is None:
4256            with_sql = ""
4257        elif not _with:
4258            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4259        else:
4260            with_sql = " WITH"
4261
4262        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4263
4264        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4265
4266    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4267        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4268            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4269
4270        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4271        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4272        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4273
4274        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4275        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4276
4277        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4278
4279    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4280        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4281        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4282        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4283        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4284        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4285
4286    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4287        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4288        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4289        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4290        return res
4291
4292    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4293        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4294        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4295        empty = (
4296            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4297            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4298            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4299        )
4300
4301        error = expression.args.get("error")
4302        error = (
4303            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4304            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4305            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4306        )
4307
4308        if error and empty:
4309            error = (
4310                f"{empty} {error}"
4311                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4312                else f"{error} {empty}"
4313            )
4314            empty = ""
4315
4316        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4317
4318        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4319
4320    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4322        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4323
4324        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4325        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4326
4327        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4328        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4329
4330        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4331
4332        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4333
4334    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4335        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4336
4337        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4338            parent = expression.parent
4339            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4340                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4341                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4342            else:
4343                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4344                this = expression.this
4345                this_sql = (
4346                    self.expressions(this)
4347                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4348                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4349                )
4350                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4351
4352        return array_agg
4353
4354    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4356        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4357
4358        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4359
4360    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4361        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4362
4363        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4364        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4365
4366        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4367        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4368
4369        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4370
4371        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4372
4373        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4374
4375    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4377        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4378        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4379
4380        return f"{this}{columns}"
4381
4382    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4384
4385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4386        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4387
4388        return f"{kind}{this}"
4389
4390    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4391        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4392        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4393            func = f"*{func}"
4394
4395        return func
4396
4397    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4399        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4400        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4401        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4402        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4403
4404        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
637    def __init__(
638        self,
639        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
640        identify: str | bool = False,
641        normalize: bool = False,
642        pad: int = 2,
643        indent: int = 2,
644        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
645        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
646        max_unsupported: int = 3,
647        leading_comma: bool = False,
648        max_text_width: int = 80,
649        comments: bool = True,
650        dialect: DialectType = None,
651    ):
652        import sqlglot
653        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
654
655        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
656        self.identify = identify
657        self.normalize = normalize
658        self.pad = pad
659        self._indent = indent
660        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
661        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
662        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
663        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
664        self.comments = comments
665        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
666
667        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
668        self.normalize_functions = (
669            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
670        )
671
672        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
673        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
674            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
675        )
676        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
677
678        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
679
680        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
681        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
683    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
684        """
685        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
686
687        Args:
688            expression: The syntax tree.
689            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
690                it is safer to copy.
691
692        Returns:
693            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
694        """
695        if copy:
696            expression = expression.copy()
697
698        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
699
700        self.unsupported_messages = []
701        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
702
703        if self.pretty:
704            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
705
706        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
707            return sql
708
709        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
710            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
711                logger.warning(msg)
712        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
713            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
714
715        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
717    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
718        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
719        if (
720            not expression.parent
721            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
722            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
723        ):
724            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
725
726            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
727
728        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
729            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
730
731            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
732
733        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
735    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
736        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
737            raise UnsupportedError(message)
738        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
740    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
741        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
743    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
744        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
746    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
747        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
748        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
749        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
751    def maybe_comment(
752        self,
753        sql: str,
754        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
755        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
756        separated: bool = False,
757    ) -> str:
758        comments = (
759            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
760            if self.comments
761            else None
762        )
763
764        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
765            return sql
766
767        comments_sql = " ".join(
768            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
769        )
770
771        if not comments_sql:
772            return sql
773
774        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
775
776        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
777            return (
778                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
779                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
780                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
781            )
782
783        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
785    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
786        this_sql = (
787            self.sql(expression)
788            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
789            else self.sql(expression, "this")
790        )
791        if not this_sql:
792            return "()"
793
794        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
795        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
797    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
798        original = self.identify
799        self.identify = False
800        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
801        self.identify = original
802        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
804    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
805        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
806            return name.upper()
807        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
808            return name.lower()
809        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
811    def indent(
812        self,
813        sql: str,
814        level: int = 0,
815        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
816        skip_first: bool = False,
817        skip_last: bool = False,
818    ) -> str:
819        if not self.pretty or not sql:
820            return sql
821
822        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
823        lines = sql.split("\n")
824
825        return "\n".join(
826            (
827                line
828                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
829                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
830            )
831            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
832        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
834    def sql(
835        self,
836        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
837        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
838        comment: bool = True,
839    ) -> str:
840        if not expression:
841            return ""
842
843        if isinstance(expression, str):
844            return expression
845
846        if key:
847            value = expression.args.get(key)
848            if value:
849                return self.sql(value)
850            return ""
851
852        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
853
854        if callable(transform):
855            sql = transform(self, expression)
856        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
857            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
858
859            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
860                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
861            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
862                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
863            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
864                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
865            else:
866                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
867        else:
868            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
869
870        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
872    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
873        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
874        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
875        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
877    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
878        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
879        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
880        options = expression.args.get("options")
881        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
882        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
883        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
884        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
885        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
887    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
888        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
889            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
890        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
891        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
893    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
894        return ".".join(
895            self.sql(part)
896            for part in (
897                expression.args.get("catalog"),
898                expression.args.get("db"),
899                expression.args.get("table"),
900                expression.args.get("this"),
901            )
902            if part
903        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
905    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
906        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
907
908        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
909            join_mark = ""
910            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
911
912        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
914    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
916        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
917        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
918        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
920    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
921        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
922        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
923        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
924        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
925        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
926        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
927        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
928        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
929
930        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
931            kind = ""
932
933        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
935    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
936        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
937        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
938        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
940    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
942        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
943            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
944        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
945            persisted = " PERSISTED"
946        else:
947            persisted = ""
948        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
950    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
951        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
953    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
954        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
955            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
956        else:
957            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
958
959        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
961    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
962        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
963    ) -> str:
964        this = ""
965        if expression.this is not None:
966            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
967            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
968
969        start = expression.args.get("start")
970        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
971        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
972        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
973        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
974        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
975        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
976        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
977        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
978        cycle_sql = ""
979
980        if cycle is not None:
981            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
982            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
983
984        sequence_opts = ""
985        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
986            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
987            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
988
989        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
990        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
991
992        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
994    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
995        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
996    ) -> str:
997        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
998        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
999        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1001    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1002        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1003    ) -> str:
1004        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1006    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1007        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1009    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1010        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1012    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1013        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1014        if desc is not None:
1015            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1016        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1018    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1020        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1021        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1022        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1023        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1024        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1025        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1026        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1028    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1029        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1031    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1032        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1033        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1034        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1035        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1036
1037        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1038
1039        properties_sql = ""
1040        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1041            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1042        ):
1043            properties_sql = self.sql(
1044                exp.Properties(
1045                    expressions=[
1046                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1047                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1048                    ]
1049                )
1050            )
1051
1052            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1053                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1054            elif not self.pretty:
1055                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1056                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1057
1058        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1059        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1060
1061        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1062        if expression_sql:
1063            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1064
1065            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1066                postalias_props_sql = ""
1067                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1068                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1069                        exp.Properties(
1070                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1071                        ),
1072                        wrapped=False,
1073                    )
1074                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1075                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1076
1077        postindex_props_sql = ""
1078        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1079            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1080                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1081                wrapped=False,
1082                prefix=" ",
1083            )
1084
1085        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1086        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1087        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1088
1089        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1090        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1091        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1092
1093        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1094        if clustered is None:
1095            clustered_sql = ""
1096        elif clustered:
1097            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1098        else:
1099            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1100
1101        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1102        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1103            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1104                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1105                sep=" ",
1106                prefix=" ",
1107                wrapped=False,
1108            )
1109
1110        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1111
1112        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1113        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1114            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1115                exp.Properties(
1116                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1117                ),
1118                sep=" ",
1119                prefix=" ",
1120                wrapped=False,
1121            )
1122
1123        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1124        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1125        no_schema_binding = (
1126            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1127        )
1128
1129        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1130        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1131
1132        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1133        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1135    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1136        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1137        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1138        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1139        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1140        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1141        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1142        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1143        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1144        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1145        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1146
1147        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1148        if cache is None:
1149            cache_str = ""
1150        elif cache is True:
1151            cache_str = " CACHE"
1152        else:
1153            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1154
1155        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1156        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1157
1158        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1160    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1162        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1163        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1164        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1166    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1167        style = expression.args.get("style")
1168        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1169        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1170        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1171        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1173    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1174        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1175        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1177    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1178        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1179        if with_:
1180            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1181        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1183    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1184        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1185        recursive = (
1186            "RECURSIVE "
1187            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1188            else ""
1189        )
1190
1191        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1193    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1194        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1195
1196        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1197        if materialized is False:
1198            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1199        elif materialized:
1200            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1201
1202        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1204    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1205        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1206        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1207        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1208
1209        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1210            columns = ""
1211            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1212
1213        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1214            alias = self._next_name()
1215
1216        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1218    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1219        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1220        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1221            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1222        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1224    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1225        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1226        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1227            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1228        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1230    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1231        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1232        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1233            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1234        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1236    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1238        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1239
1240        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1241            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1242            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1243        else:
1244            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1245            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1246
1247        if escape:
1248            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1249            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1250        else:
1251            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1252            escape_sql = ""
1253
1254        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1255            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1256
1257        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1259    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1260        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1261        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1263    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1266        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1267        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1269    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1270        nested = ""
1271        values = ""
1272        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1273
1274        type_value = expression.this
1275        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1276            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1277        else:
1278            type_sql = (
1279                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1280                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1281                else type_value
1282            )
1283
1284        if interior:
1285            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1286                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1287                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1288                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1289                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1290                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1291            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1292                nested = f" {interior}"
1293            else:
1294                nested = f"({interior})"
1295
1296        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1297        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1298            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1299            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1300        ):
1301            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1302
1303        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1305    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1306        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1307        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1308        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1309        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1311    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1313        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1314        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1315        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1316        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1317        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1318        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1319        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1320        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1321        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1322        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1323        if self.RETURNING_END:
1324            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1325        else:
1326            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1327        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1329    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1330        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1331        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1332        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1333        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1334        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1335        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1336        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1337        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1338        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1339        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1340        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1341        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1342        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1343        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1344        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1346    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1347        op_type = type(expression)
1348        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1349
1350        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1351        if (
1352            distinct is False
1353            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1354            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1355        ):
1356            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1357
1358        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1359
1360        if distinct is None:
1361            distinct = default_distinct
1362            if distinct is None:
1363                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1364
1365        if distinct is default_distinct:
1366            kind = ""
1367        else:
1368            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1369
1370        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1371        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1373    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1374        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1375            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1376            order = expression.args.get("order")
1377
1378            if limit or order:
1379                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1380
1381                if limit:
1382                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1383                if order:
1384                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1385                return self.sql(select)
1386
1387        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1388        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1389
1390        while stack:
1391            node = stack.pop()
1392
1393            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1394                stack.append(node.expression)
1395                stack.append(
1396                    self.maybe_comment(
1397                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1398                    )
1399                )
1400                stack.append(node.this)
1401            else:
1402                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1403
1404        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1405        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1406        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1408    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1409        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1410        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1411        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1412        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1413        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1414            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1415        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1416        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1418    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1419        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1420            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1421            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1422            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1423
1424        agg = expression.this
1425        agg_arg = agg.this
1426        cond = expression.expression.this
1427        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1428        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1430    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1431        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1432            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1433            return ""
1434
1435        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1437    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1438        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1439        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1440        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1441        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1442        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1443        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1444        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1445        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1446        if include:
1447            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1448        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1449        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1450        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1451        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1452        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1453        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1454
1455        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1457    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1458        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1459        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1460        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1461        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1463        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1464        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1465
1466        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1467
1468        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1469        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1471    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1472        text = expression.name
1473        lower = text.lower()
1474        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1475        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1476        if (
1477            expression.quoted
1478            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1479            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1480            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1481        ):
1482            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1483        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1485    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1486        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1487        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1488            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1489
1490        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1492    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1493        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1494        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1495            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1496        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1498    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1499        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1500        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1501        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1502        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1503        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1505    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1506        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1507        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1509    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1510        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1512    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1513        root_properties = []
1514        with_properties = []
1515
1516        for p in expression.expressions:
1517            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1518            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1519                with_properties.append(p)
1520            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1521                root_properties.append(p)
1522
1523        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1524        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1525
1526        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1527            with_props = " " + with_props
1528
1529        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1531    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1532        if properties.expressions:
1533            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1534        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1536    def properties(
1537        self,
1538        properties: exp.Properties,
1539        prefix: str = "",
1540        sep: str = ", ",
1541        suffix: str = "",
1542        wrapped: bool = True,
1543    ) -> str:
1544        if properties.expressions:
1545            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1546            if expressions:
1547                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1548                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1549        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1551    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1552        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1554    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1555        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1556        for p in properties.expressions:
1557            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1558            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1559                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1560            else:
1561                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1562
1563        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1565    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1566        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1567            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1568        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1570    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1571        property_cls = expression.__class__
1572        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1573            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1574
1575        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1576        if not property_name:
1577            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1578
1579        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1581    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1582        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1583            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1584            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1585
1586            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1587            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1588                like = f"({like})"
1589
1590            return like
1591
1592        if expression.expressions:
1593            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1594
1595        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1596        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1598    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1599        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1600        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1601        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1603    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1604        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1605        local = expression.args.get("local")
1606        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1607        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1608        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1609        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1610        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1612    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1613        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1614        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1615        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1617    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1618        if expression.args.get("default"):
1619            property = "DEFAULT"
1620        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1621            property = "ON"
1622        else:
1623            property = "OFF"
1624        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1626    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1627        if expression.args.get("no"):
1628            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1629        if expression.args.get("default"):
1630            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1631
1632        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1633        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1635    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1636        default = expression.args.get("default")
1637        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1638        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1639        if default or minimum or maximum:
1640            if default:
1641                prop = "DEFAULT"
1642            elif minimum:
1643                prop = "MINIMUM"
1644            else:
1645                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1646            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1647        units = expression.args.get("units")
1648        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1649        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1651    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1652        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1653        always = expression.args.get("always")
1654        default = expression.args.get("default")
1655        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1656        never = expression.args.get("never")
1657
1658        if autotemp is not None:
1659            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1660        elif always:
1661            prop = "ALWAYS"
1662        elif default:
1663            prop = "DEFAULT"
1664        elif manual:
1665            prop = "MANUAL"
1666        elif never:
1667            prop = "NEVER"
1668        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1670    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1671        no = expression.args.get("no")
1672        no = " NO" if no else ""
1673        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1674        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1675        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1676        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1677        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1679    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1680        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1681            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1682        if expression.this:
1683            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1684            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1685            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1686
1687        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1688        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1689        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1691    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1693
1694        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1695        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1696            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1697        else:
1698            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1699
1700        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1702    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1703        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1704        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1705        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1706        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1707        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1708        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1709        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1711    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1712        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1713        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1714        statistics_sql = ""
1715        if statistics is not None:
1716            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1717        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1719    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1722        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1723        data_consistency = (
1724            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1725        )
1726        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1727        retention_period = (
1728            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1729        )
1730
1731        if this:
1732            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1733        else:
1734            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1735
1736        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1737
1738        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1740    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1741        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1742        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1743
1744        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1745            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1746        else:
1747            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1748
1749        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1750        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1751        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1752        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1753        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1754        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1755        if is_function:
1756            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1757        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1758
1759        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1760        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1761        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1762        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1763        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1764        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1765        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1766        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1767
1768        if self.RETURNING_END:
1769            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1770        else:
1771            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1772
1773        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1774        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1775        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1776        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1777
1778        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1779        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1780
1781        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1782        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1784    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1785        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1787    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1788        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1789        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1791        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1792        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1794    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1795        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1797    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1798        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1800    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1801        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1802
1803        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1804        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1805
1806        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1807        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1808        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1809
1810        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1811        if expressions:
1812            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1813            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1814
1815        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1817    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1818        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1820    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1821        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1822        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1823        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1824        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1825        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1826        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1827        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1828        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1829        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1830        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1831        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1832        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1833        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1835    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1836        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1838    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1839        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1840        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1841        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1842        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1844    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1847        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1848        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1850    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1851        return ".".join(
1852            self.sql(part)
1853            for part in (
1854                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1855                expression.args.get("db"),
1856                expression.args.get("this"),
1857            )
1858            if part is not None
1859        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1861    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1862        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1863        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1864        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1865        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1866        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1867        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1868        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1869        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1870
1871        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1872        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1873            sample_pre_alias = sample
1874            sample_post_alias = ""
1875        else:
1876            sample_pre_alias = ""
1877            sample_post_alias = sample
1878
1879        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1880        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1881        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1882        joins = self.indent(
1883            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1884        )
1885        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1886
1887        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1888        if file_format:
1889            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1890            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1891            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1892
1893        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1894        if ordinality:
1895            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1896            alias = ""
1897
1898        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1899        if when:
1900            table = f"{table} {when}"
1901
1902        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1903        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1904
1905        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1906        if rows_from:
1907            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1908
1909        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1911    def tablesample_sql(
1912        self,
1913        expression: exp.TableSample,
1914        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1915    ) -> str:
1916        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1917        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1918        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1919        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1920        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1921        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1922        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1923        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1924        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1925
1926        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1927        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1928            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1929
1930        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1931        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1932            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1933
1934        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1935        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1936            expr = f"({expr})"
1937
1938        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1940    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1941        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1942
1943        if expression.this:
1944            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1945            if not expressions:
1946                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1947
1948            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1949            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1950            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1951            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1952            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1953
1954        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1955        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1956        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1957
1958        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1959
1960        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1961        if include_nulls is not None:
1962            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1963        else:
1964            nulls = ""
1965
1966        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1967        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1968        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1970    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1971        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1972        kind = expression.text("kind")
1973        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1974        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1976    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1977        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1979    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1980        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1981        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1982        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1983        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1984        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1985        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1986        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1987        if self.RETURNING_END:
1988            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1989        else:
1990            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1991        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1994    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1995        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1996
1997        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1998        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1999            args = self.expressions(expression)
2000            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2001            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2002            values = (
2003                f"({values})"
2004                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2005                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2006                else values
2007            )
2008            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2009
2010        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2011        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2012        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2013
2014        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2015
2016        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2017            row = tup.expressions
2018
2019            if i == 0 and column_names:
2020                row = [
2021                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2022                ]
2023
2024            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2025
2026        if self.pretty:
2027            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2028            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2029            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2030            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2031            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2032
2033        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2034        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2035        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2037    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2038        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2040    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2041    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2042        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2043        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2044        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2046    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2047        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2049    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2050        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2051        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2053    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2054        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2055        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2057    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2058        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2059        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2061    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2062        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2063        if group_by_all is True:
2064            modifier = " ALL"
2065        elif group_by_all is False:
2066            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2067        else:
2068            modifier = ""
2069
2070        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2071
2072        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2073        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2074        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2075
2076        groupings = csv(
2077            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2078            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2079            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2080            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2081            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2082        )
2083
2084        if (
2085            expression.expressions
2086            and groupings
2087            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2088        ):
2089            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2090
2091        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2093    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2094        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2095        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2097    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2098        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2099        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2100        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2101        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2102        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2103        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2105    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2106        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2108    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2109        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2110            side = None
2111        else:
2112            side = expression.side
2113
2114        op_sql = " ".join(
2115            op
2116            for op in (
2117                expression.method,
2118                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2119                side,
2120                expression.kind,
2121                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2122            )
2123            if op
2124        )
2125        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2126        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2127        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2128        using = expression.args.get("using")
2129
2130        if not on_sql and using:
2131            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2132
2133        this = expression.this
2134        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2135
2136        if on_sql:
2137            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2138            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2139            if using:
2140                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2141            else:
2142                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2143        elif not op_sql:
2144            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2145                return f" {this_sql}"
2146
2147            return f", {this_sql}"
2148
2149        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2150            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2151
2152        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2154    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2155        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2156        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2157        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2159    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2160        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2161
2162        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2163        if cross_apply is True:
2164            op = "INNER JOIN "
2165        elif cross_apply is False:
2166            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2167        else:
2168            op = ""
2169
2170        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2172    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174
2175        if expression.args.get("view"):
2176            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2177            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2178            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2179            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2180            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2181            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2182
2183        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2184        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2185        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2187    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2189
2190        args = [
2191            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2192            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2193            if e
2194        ]
2195
2196        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2197        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2198        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2199        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2200
2201        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2203    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205        value = expression.expression
2206        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2207        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2208        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2209        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2211    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2212        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2213        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2214        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2215        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2216        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2217        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2218        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2219        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2221    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2222        expressions = (
2223            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2224        )
2225        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2226        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2228    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2229        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2231    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2232        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2233            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2234            return ""
2235
2236        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2237        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2238        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2239        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2240
2241        if wait is not None:
2242            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2243                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2244            else:
2245                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2246
2247        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2249    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2250        text = expression.this or ""
2251        if expression.is_string:
2252            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2253        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2255    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2256        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2257            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2258            text = "".join(
2259                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2260            )
2261
2262        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2263            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2264        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2266    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2267        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2268        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2269        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2270        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2271        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2272        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2273        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2274        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2275        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2276        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2277        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2279    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2280        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2282    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2283        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2285    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2286        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2287        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2288        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2289        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2291    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2292        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2293        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2294        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2295        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2296        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2297        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2298        interpolated_values = [
2299            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2300            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2301        ]
2302        interpolate = (
2303            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2304        )
2305        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2307    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2308        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2310    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2311        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2313    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2314        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2316    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2317        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2318        asc = not desc
2319
2320        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2321        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2322        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2323        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2324        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2325
2326        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2327
2328        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2329        nulls_sort_change = ""
2330        if nulls_first and (
2331            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2332        ):
2333            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2334        elif (
2335            nulls_last
2336            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2337            and not nulls_are_last
2338        ):
2339            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2340
2341        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2342        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2343            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2344            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2345                self.unsupported(
2346                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2347                )
2348                nulls_sort_change = ""
2349            elif (
2350                self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False
2351                and (isinstance(expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Select), exp.AggFunc))
2352                and (
2353                    (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2354                    or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2355                )
2356            ):
2357                self.unsupported(
2358                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2359                )
2360                nulls_sort_change = ""
2361            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2362                if expression.this.is_int:
2363                    self.unsupported(
2364                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2365                    )
2366                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2367                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2368                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2369                nulls_sort_change = ""
2370
2371        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2372        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2373
2374        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2376    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2377        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2378        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2379
2380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2381
2382        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2384    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2385        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2386        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2387        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2388        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2389        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2390        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2391        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2392        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2393        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2394        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2395        definition_sqls = [
2396            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2397            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2398        ]
2399        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2400        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2401        body = "".join(
2402            (
2403                partition,
2404                order,
2405                measures,
2406                rows,
2407                after,
2408                pattern,
2409                define,
2410            )
2411        )
2412        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2413        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2414        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2416    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2417        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2418
2419        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2420            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2421        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2422            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2423
2424        return csv(
2425            *sqls,
2426            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2427            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2428            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2429            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2430            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2431            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2432            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2433            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2434            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2435            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2436            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2437            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2438            self.options_modifier(expression),
2439            sep="",
2440        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2442    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2443        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2444        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2446    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2447        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2449    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2450        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2451    ) -> t.List[str]:
2452        return [
2453            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2454            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2455        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2457    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2458        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2459        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2460        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2462    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2463        into = expression.args.get("into")
2464        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2465            into.pop()
2466
2467        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2468        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2469        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2470        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2471
2472        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2473        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2474            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2475            limit.pop()
2476        else:
2477            top = ""
2478
2479        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2480
2481        if kind:
2482            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2483                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2484            else:
2485                if kind == "STRUCT":
2486                    expressions = self.expressions(
2487                        sqls=[
2488                            self.sql(
2489                                exp.Struct(
2490                                    expressions=[
2491                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2492                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2493                                        else e
2494                                        for e in expression.expressions
2495                                    ]
2496                                )
2497                            )
2498                        ]
2499                    )
2500                kind = ""
2501
2502        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2503        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2504        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2505        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2506        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2507            expression,
2508            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2509            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2510            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2511        )
2512
2513        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2514
2515        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2516            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2517                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2518            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2519                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2520            else:
2521                table_kind = ""
2522            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2523
2524        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2526    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2528        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2529        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2531    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2532        if expression.expressions:
2533            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2534        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2536    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2537        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2538        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2539        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2540        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2541        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2542        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2543        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2545    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2546        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2547        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2549    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2551        kind = expression.text("kind")
2552        if kind:
2553            kind = f"{kind}."
2554        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2556    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2557        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2559    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2560        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2561        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2562        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2563        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2564            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2565
2566            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2567            expression.set("sample", None)
2568
2569        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2570        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2571        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2573    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2574        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2575        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2577    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2578        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2579
2580        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2581        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2582
2583        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2584            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2585                alias.append("columns", offset)
2586
2587        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2588            columns = alias.columns
2589            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2590        else:
2591            alias = self.sql(alias)
2592
2593        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2594        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2595            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2596        else:
2597            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2598                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2599            elif offset:
2600                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2601            else:
2602                suffix = alias
2603
2604        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2606    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2607        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2609    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2610        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2611        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2613    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2615        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2616        order = expression.args.get("order")
2617        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2618        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2619        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2620        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2621
2622        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2623
2624        first = expression.args.get("first")
2625        if first is None:
2626            first = ""
2627        else:
2628            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2629
2630        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2631            return f"{this} {alias}"
2632
2633        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2634        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2636    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2637        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2638        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2640    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2641        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2642        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2643        end = (
2644            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2645            or "CURRENT ROW"
2646        )
2647        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2649    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2650        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2651        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2652        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2654    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2655        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2656        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2657        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2658        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2660    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2661        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2662    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2663        return apply_index_offset(
2664            expression.this,
2665            expression.expressions,
2666            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2667        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2669    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2670        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2671        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2672        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2674    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2675        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2677    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2679        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2680            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2681                this = self.wrap(this)
2682            return f"ANY{this}"
2683        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2685    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2686        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2688    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2689        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2690        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2691
2692        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2693            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2694            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2695
2696        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2697
2698        if default:
2699            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2700
2701        statements.append("END")
2702
2703        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2704            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2705
2706        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2708    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2709        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2711        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2713    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2714        order = expression.args.get("order")
2715        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2716        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2718    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2720        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2721        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2723    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2724        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2725
2726        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2727            func_name = "LTRIM"
2728        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2729            func_name = "RTRIM"
2730        else:
2731            func_name = "TRIM"
2732
2733        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2735    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2736        args = expression.expressions
2737        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2738            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2739
2740        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2741            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2742
2743        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2744            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2745
2746        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2748    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2749        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2750
2751        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2752        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2753            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2754
2755        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2757    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2758        return self.func(
2759            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2760        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2762    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2763        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2764        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2766    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2768        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2769        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2770        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2771        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2772        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2773        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2774        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2776    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2777        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2778        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2779        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2780        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2782    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2783        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2785    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2786        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2787        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2788        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2790    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2791        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2793    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2794        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2795
2796        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2797            path = self.escape_str(path)
2798
2799        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2800            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2801
2802        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2804    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2805        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2806            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2807            if not callable(transform):
2808                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2809                return ""
2810
2811            return transform(self, expression)
2812
2813        if isinstance(expression, int):
2814            return str(expression)
2815
2816        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2817            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2818            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2819        else:
2820            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2821            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2822
2823        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2825    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2826        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2828    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2829        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2830        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2831
2832        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2833        if unique_keys is not None:
2834            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2835        else:
2836            unique_keys = ""
2837
2838        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2839        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2840        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2841        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2842
2843        return self.func(
2844            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2845            *expression.expressions,
2846            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2847        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2849    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2850        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2852    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2853        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2854        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2855        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2856        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2857        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2858        return self.func(
2859            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2860        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2862    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2865        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2866        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2867        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2868        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2869        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2870        return self.func(
2871            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2872            this,
2873            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2874        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2876    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2877        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2878        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2879        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2880
2881        if nested_schema:
2882            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2883
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2886        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2887        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2889    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2890        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2892    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2894        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2895        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2896        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2897        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2898        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2899        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2900        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2901        return self.func(
2902            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2903        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2905    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2907        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2908        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2909        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2910        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2911        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2913    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2914        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2915        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2916        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2917        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2918        with_ = (
2919            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2920            if expressions
2921            else ""
2922        )
2923        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2925    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2926        query = expression.args.get("query")
2927        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2928        field = expression.args.get("field")
2929        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2930
2931        if query:
2932            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2933        elif unnest:
2934            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2935        elif field:
2936            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2937        else:
2938            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2939
2940        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2942    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2943        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2945    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2946        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2947        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2948            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2949        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2950
2951        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2952            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2953            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2954
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956        if this:
2957            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2958            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2959
2960        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2962    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2963        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2965    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2966        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2967        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2968        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2969        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2970        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2971        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2973    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2974        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2975        parent = expression.parent
2976        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2977        return self.func(
2978            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2979        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2981    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2982        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2983        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2985    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2986        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2987        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2989        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2991    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2992        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2994    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2995        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2996        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2997        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2999    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3000        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3001
3002        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3003        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3004
3005        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3006            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3007        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3008            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3009
3010        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3012    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3013        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3015    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3017        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3018        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3020    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3023        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3025    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3028        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3030    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3031        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3033    def and_sql(
3034        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3035    ) -> str:
3036        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3038    def or_sql(
3039        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3040    ) -> str:
3041        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3043    def xor_sql(
3044        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3045    ) -> str:
3046        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3048    def connector_sql(
3049        self,
3050        expression: exp.Connector,
3051        op: str,
3052        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3053    ) -> str:
3054        if stack is not None:
3055            if expression.expressions:
3056                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3057            else:
3058                stack.append(expression.right)
3059                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3060                    for comment in expression.comments:
3061                        if comment:
3062                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3063                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3064            return op
3065
3066        stack = [expression]
3067        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3068        ops = set()
3069
3070        while stack:
3071            node = stack.pop()
3072            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3073                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3074            else:
3075                sql = self.sql(node)
3076                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3077                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3078                else:
3079                    sqls.append(sql)
3080
3081        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3082        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3084    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3085        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3087    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3088        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3090    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3091        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3093    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3094        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3096    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3097        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3099    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3100        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3102    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3103        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3104        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3105        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3106        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3107        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3108        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3109        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3111    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3112        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3113        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3115    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3116        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3117            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3118        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3120    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3121        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3123    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3124        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3125        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3126        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3127        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3128        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3129        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3131    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3133        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3134        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3135        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3136        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3137        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3138        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3139        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3140        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3142    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3143        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3144        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3145        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3146        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3147
3148        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3149            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3150
3151        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3153    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3154        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3156    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3157        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3158        if chain is not None:
3159            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3160
3161        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3163    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3164        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3165        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3166        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3168    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3169        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3170
3171        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3172        if dtype:
3173            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3174            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3175            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3176            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3177            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3178
3179        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3180        if default:
3181            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3182
3183        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3184        if comment:
3185            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3186
3187        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3188        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3189
3190        if not drop and not allow_null:
3191            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3192
3193        if allow_null is not None:
3194            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3195            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3196
3197        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3199    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3201        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3202            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3203        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3205    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3206        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3207        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3209        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3210        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3212    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3213        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3214            # Remove db from tables
3215            expression = expression.transform(
3216                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3217            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3218        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3219        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3221    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3222        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3223        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3224        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3225        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3227    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3228        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3229        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3231    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3232        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3233
3234        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3235            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3236        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3237            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3238        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3239            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3240        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3241            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3242        else:
3243            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3244
3245        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3246        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3247        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3248        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3249        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3250        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3251        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3252        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3253
3254        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3256    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3257        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3258            return self.expressions(
3259                expression,
3260                key="actions",
3261                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3262                skip_first=True,
3263            )
3264        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3266    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3267        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3268        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3269        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3271    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3272        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3274    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3275        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3276
3277        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3278            case = exp.case()
3279            for arg in expression.expressions:
3280                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3281            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3282
3283        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3284
3285        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3286        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3287        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3289    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3290        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3292    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3293        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3295    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3296        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3297        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3298        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3299        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3301    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3302        return self.sql(
3303            exp.Cast(
3304                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3305                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3306            )
3307        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3309    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3310        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3311            return self.func(
3312                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3313            )
3314        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3316    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3317        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3318
3319        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3320            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3321
3322        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3323            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3324                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3325
3326        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3327            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3328                return self.sql(
3329                    exp.cast(
3330                        l / r,
3331                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3332                    )
3333                )
3334
3335        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3337    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3338        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3340    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3341        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3343    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3344        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3346    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3347        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3349    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3350        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3352    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3353        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3355    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3356        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3358    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3359        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3361    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3362        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3364    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3365        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3367    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3368        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3370    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3371        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3372            return self.sql(
3373                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3374            )
3375        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3377    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3378        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3380    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3381        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3383    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3384        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3386    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3387        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3389    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3390        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3392    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3393        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3395    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3396        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3398    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3399        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3401    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3402        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3404    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3405        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3407    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3410    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3413    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3414        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3416    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3417        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3418            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3419            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3420
3421        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3423    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3424        this = expression.this
3425        expr = expression.expression
3426
3427        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3428            this, expr = expr, this
3429        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3430            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3431                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3432
3433            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3434
3435        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3437    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3438        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3439        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3442        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3444    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3445        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3446        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3447        binary_type = type(expression)
3448
3449        while stack:
3450            node = stack.pop()
3451
3452            if type(node) is binary_type:
3453                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3454                if op_func:
3455                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3456
3457                stack.append(node.right)
3458                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3459                stack.append(node.left)
3460            else:
3461                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3462
3463        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3465    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3466        args = []
3467
3468        for key in expression.arg_types:
3469            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3470
3471            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3472                for value in arg_value:
3473                    args.append(value)
3474            elif arg_value is not None:
3475                args.append(arg_value)
3476
3477        if self.normalize_functions:
3478            name = expression.sql_name()
3479        else:
3480            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3481
3482        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3484    def func(
3485        self,
3486        name: str,
3487        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3488        prefix: str = "(",
3489        suffix: str = ")",
3490        normalize: bool = True,
3491    ) -> str:
3492        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3493        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3495    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3496        arg_sqls = tuple(
3497            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3498        )
3499        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3500            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3501        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3503    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3504        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3506    def format_time(
3507        self,
3508        expression: exp.Expression,
3509        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3510        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3511    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3512        return format_time(
3513            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3514            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3515            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3516        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3518    def expressions(
3519        self,
3520        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3521        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3522        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3523        flat: bool = False,
3524        indent: bool = True,
3525        skip_first: bool = False,
3526        skip_last: bool = False,
3527        sep: str = ", ",
3528        prefix: str = "",
3529        dynamic: bool = False,
3530        new_line: bool = False,
3531    ) -> str:
3532        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3533
3534        if not expressions:
3535            return ""
3536
3537        if flat:
3538            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3539
3540        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3541        result_sqls = []
3542
3543        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3544            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3545            if not sql:
3546                continue
3547
3548            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3549
3550            if self.pretty:
3551                if self.leading_comma:
3552                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3553                else:
3554                    result_sqls.append(
3555                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3556                    )
3557            else:
3558                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3559
3560        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3561            if new_line:
3562                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3563                result_sqls.append("")
3564            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3565        else:
3566            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3567
3568        return (
3569            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3570            if indent
3571            else result_sql
3572        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3574    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3575        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3576        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3577        if flat:
3578            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3579        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3581    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3582        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3583        if not property_name:
3584            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3585        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3587    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3588        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3590    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3591        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3593    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3595        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3596        expressions = (
3597            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3598        )
3599        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3601    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3603        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3604        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3606    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3607        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3609    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3610        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3611        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3612        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3613        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3614
3615        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3616        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3617            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3618            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3619            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3620            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3621        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3622            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3623                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3624            else:
3625                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3626        else:
3627            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3628        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3630    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3631        table = expression.this
3632        table_alias = ""
3633
3634        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3635        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3636            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3637            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3638
3639        this = self.sql(table)
3640        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3641        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3643        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3644        if returning:
3645            expressions = f"{expressions}{returning}"
3646
3647        sep = self.sep()
3648
3649        return self.prepend_ctes(
3650            expression,
3651            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}",
3652        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3654    @unsupported_args("format")
3655    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3656        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3658    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3659        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3660            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3661            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3662
3663        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3664        if not fmt:
3665            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3666            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3667
3668        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3670    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3671        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3672        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3673        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3674        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3675        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3677    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3678        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3679        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3680        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3681        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3683    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3684        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3686    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3687        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3690    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3691        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3692        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3693        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3694        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3695        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3696        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3697        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3699    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3700        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3702    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3703        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3704        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3705        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3706        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3707        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3709    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3710        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3711        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3712
3713        if having:
3714            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3715
3716        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3718    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3719        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3720        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3721        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3722        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3723        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3724        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3725        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3726        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3727        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3728        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3729        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3730        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3731        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3733    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3734        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3735        if key_block_size:
3736            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3737
3738        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3739        if using:
3740            return f"USING {using}"
3741
3742        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3743        if parser:
3744            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3745
3746        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3747        if comment:
3748            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3749
3750        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3751        if visible is not None:
3752            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3753
3754        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3755        if engine_attr:
3756            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3757
3758        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3759        if secondary_engine_attr:
3760            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3761
3762        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3763        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3765    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3766        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3767        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3769    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3770        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3771        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3773        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3774        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3775        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3776        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3777        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3778        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3779        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3780        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3782    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3783        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3784            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3785
3786        case = exp.Case().when(
3787            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3788            expression.args["true"],
3789            copy=False,
3790        )
3791        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3792        if else_cond:
3793            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3794
3795        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3797    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3798        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3799        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3800        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3801        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3802        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3803        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3805    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3806        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3808    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3809        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3811    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3812        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3813        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3814        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3815        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3816        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3817        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3819    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3820        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3821        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3822        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3824    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3826        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3827        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3829    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3830        arg = expression.this
3831        if not arg.type:
3832            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3833
3834            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3835
3836        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3837            return self.sql(arg)
3838
3839        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3840        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3842    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3843        this = expression.this
3844        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3845            return self.sql(this)
3846
3847        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3849    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3850        this = expression.this
3851        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3852            return self.sql(this)
3853
3854        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3856    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3857        this = expression.this
3858        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3859
3860        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3861            return self.sql(
3862                exp.cast(
3863                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3864                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3865                )
3866            )
3867
3868        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3869            return self.sql(this)
3870
3871        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3873    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3874        return self.sql(
3875            exp.func(
3876                "DATEDIFF",
3877                expression.this,
3878                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3879                "day",
3880            )
3881        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3883    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3884        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3885            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3886
3887        unit = expression.text("unit")
3888        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3889            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3890
3891        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3893    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3894        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3895
3896        return self.func(
3897            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3898        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3900    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3901        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3902            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3903            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3904            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3905            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3906
3907        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3908
3909        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3910        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3911            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3912
3913        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3915    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3916        expression.set(
3917            "expressions",
3918            [
3919                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3920                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3921                else e
3922                for e in expression.expressions
3923            ],
3924        )
3925
3926        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3928    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3929        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3930        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3931
3932        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3934    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3935        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3936        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3937
3938        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3939
3940        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3941        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3942
3943        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3944        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3945
3946        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3947        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3948
3949        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3950        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3951
3952        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3956    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3957        to = expression.this
3958        value = expression.expression
3959        style = expression.args.get("style")
3960        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3961        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3962
3963        if not to or not value:
3964            return ""
3965
3966        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3967        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3968            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3969
3970        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3971        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3972
3973        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3974        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3975            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3976
3977            style_value = style.name
3978            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3979            if not converted_style:
3980                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3981
3982            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3983
3984            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3985                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3986            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3987                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3988            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3989                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3990            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3991                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3992
3993        if not transformed:
3994            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3995
3996        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4052    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4053        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4054
4055        if expression.expressions:
4056            upper = option.upper()
4057
4058            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4059            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4060
4061            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4062            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4063            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4064            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4065
4066        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4067
4068        if not value:
4069            return option
4070
4071        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4072
4073        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4075    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4076        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4077        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4078            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4079            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4080            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4081        else:
4082            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4083            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4084            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4085
4086        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4087        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4088
4089        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4090        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4091
4092        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4093        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4094
4095        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4096        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4097
4098        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4100    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4101        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4102        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4103
4104        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4105        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4106        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4107        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4108
4109        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4110        params = self.expressions(
4111            expression,
4112            key="params",
4113            sep=sep,
4114            new_line=True,
4115            skip_last=True,
4116            skip_first=True,
4117            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4118        )
4119
4120        if params:
4121            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4122                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4123            elif not self.pretty:
4124                params = f" {params}"
4125
4126        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4128    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4129        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4131    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4132        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4133        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4134        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4135        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4136        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4137
4138        if filter_col or retention_period:
4139            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4140
4141        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4143    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4144        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4145    ) -> str:
4146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4147        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4148        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4149        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4151    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4153        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4154        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4156    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4157        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4159    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4161        expr = expression.expression
4162
4163        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4164            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4165            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4166        else:
4167            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4168
4169        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4171    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4172        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4173            return self.sql(expression.this)
4174
4175        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4177    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4178        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4179        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4180
4181        if lower and upper:
4182            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4183        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4185    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4186        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4187        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4188        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4189        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4190        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4191        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4192
4193        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4195    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4196        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4197
4198        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4199        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4200            fill_pattern = "' '"
4201
4202        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4204    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4205        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4206        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4208    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4209        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4210
4211        parent = expression.parent
4212        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4213            parent = parent.parent
4214
4215        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4216            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4217
4218        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4219            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4220
4221        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4223    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4224        exprs = expression.expressions
4225        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4226            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4227        else:
4228            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4229
4230        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4232    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4233        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4234            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4235
4236        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4237        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4238        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4239
4240        if source_tz and timestamp:
4241            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4242                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4243            )
4244
4245        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4246
4247        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4249    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4250        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4251        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4252
4253        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4254
4255        if _with is None:
4256            with_sql = ""
4257        elif not _with:
4258            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4259        else:
4260            with_sql = " WITH"
4261
4262        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4263
4264        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4266    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4267        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4268            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4269
4270        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4271        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4272        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4273
4274        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4275        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4276
4277        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4279    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4280        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4281        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4282        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4283        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4284        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4286    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4287        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4288        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4289        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4290        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4292    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4293        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4294        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4295        empty = (
4296            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4297            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4298            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4299        )
4300
4301        error = expression.args.get("error")
4302        error = (
4303            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4304            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4305            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4306        )
4307
4308        if error and empty:
4309            error = (
4310                f"{empty} {error}"
4311                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4312                else f"{error} {empty}"
4313            )
4314            empty = ""
4315
4316        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4317
4318        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4320    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4321        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4322        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4323
4324        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4325        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4326
4327        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4328        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4329
4330        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4331
4332        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4334    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4335        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4336
4337        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4338            parent = expression.parent
4339            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4340                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4341                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4342            else:
4343                # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4344                this = expression.this
4345                this_sql = (
4346                    self.expressions(this)
4347                    if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4348                    else self.sql(expression, "this")
4349                )
4350                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4351
4352        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4354    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4355        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4356        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4357
4358        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4360    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4361        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4362
4363        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4364        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4365
4366        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4367        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4368
4369        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4370
4371        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4372
4373        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4375    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4376        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4377        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4378        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4379
4380        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4382    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4384
4385        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4386        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4387
4388        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4390    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4391        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4392        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4393            func = f"*{func}"
4394
4395        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4397    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4398        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4399        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4400        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4401        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4402        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4403
4404        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"